Technologies

Agricultural terraces with dry-stone walls [Cyprus]

Γεωργικές αναβαθμίδες με τοίχους ξερολιθιάς (Greek)

technologies_1702 - Cyprus

Completeness: 84%

1. معلومات عامة

1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Key resource person(s)

SLM specialist:
SLM specialist:

Bruggeman Adriana

The Cyprus Institute

Cyprus

SLM specialist:

Camera Corrado

The Cyprus Insitute

Cyprus

Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)
Preventing and Remediating degradation of soils in Europe through Land Care (EU-RECARE )
Name of the institution(s) which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)
The Cyprus Institute (The Cyprus Institute) - Cyprus

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

نعم

1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology

Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?

لا

1.5 Reference to Questionnaire(s) on SLM Approaches (documented using WOCAT)

2. Description of the SLM Technology

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

Dry-stone terraces built to create agricultural land, minimise soil erosion and retain soil moisture on steep mountain slopes.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

Dry-stone terraces consist of a series of nearly levelled platforms built along contour lines at suitable intervals. These structures characterise a large part of the landscape in Cyprus, and especially in communities around Troodos Mountains where large areas have been converted to agricultural terraces. The typical terraces found in the study-area are narrow (1-3 m) to medium-base (3-6 m) bench terraces, constructed by cutting and filling in slopes between 20-40%. The terraces are supported by walls, whereby stone is the only construction material without any binding mortar.

Terracing is one of the oldest means of cultivating slopes while saving soil and water. Due to the steep terrain of Troodos Mountains, the establishment of terraces acts as sediment trap storing the washed-off soil material within the slope. In general, terraces were created to stop or reduce the degrading effect of soil erosion by intercepting and controlling the surface run-off velocity and by facilitating its slower infiltration. In such a way, the sediment that accumulates behind the terraces has created suitable land for farming. In addition, the construction of dry-stone walls serves a dual purpose: to clear the land from large rock and stones, and to enhance the stability of the bench terraces against loss of top-soil. This is a type of technology that was very much used in the past and seen today as an important cultural landscape and heritage for these communities.

The construction of dry-stone walls was usually completed by the family who owned the field. Men undertook the building while the rest of the family carried the stones; assistance was also offered by relatives and friends of the family. First, the topography, the height and shape of the terrace is evaluated. Using a fuse, the craftsman shapes a straight line which would follow while building the wall. The foundations are created by excavating a pit of ~0.3-0.5 m, depending on the type of soils and the size of the wall; fuse, pick, mattock and shovel are the typical tools used. The pit is filled with large, irregular-shaped stones.

The stones are used in their natural shape for the construction of the walls without any processing. They are separated according to their shape, size and texture. The stones usually come from the cleaning of fields which will be cultivated or from a small-scale quarrying of the mountain slope using pick and lever. Large and irregular stones are used for the foundations, and the more regular ones for the construction of walls. The smaller stones are placed in between the large stones as the linchpin, to provide better stability to the structure.
The wall follows the land inclination and is laid over the foundation. Large stones are placed on the lower courses of the wall and on the exterior side. The stones are placed by hand one over the other, while smaller stones and rubbles are put between them in order to achieve more stability and better positioning; the stones cross both vertically and horizontally in order to avoid the creation of columns which will make the structure less stable. The wall is built lengthwise following the foundations and it reclines inwards; declination from the foundations does not exceed 5%. The back side of the wall is filled-up with more irregular stones which are not suitable to be placed on the front side. The filling connects the wall with the soil and stabilises the structure, and allows the drainage of water that is collected from the terrace and is discharged through the stones of the wall.

Terrace farming of grapes, nut and fruit trees, along with natural (mainly sclerophylous) vegetation constitute the predominant land uses in this area. The total population in the eight mountain communities of Peristerona Watershed has decreased by more than 50% over the past 30 years. The depopulation of mountain communities is associated with the urbanisation trends and the high farming costs which led to the gradual reduction of agricultural activities in the area. These socio-economic attributes form the main constraining factors for soil conservation. Thus, although terraces have a particularly beneficial effect in maintaining the productive capacity of soils in these communities, the significant changes in the socio-economic structure of the agricultural population over the last decades and the high maintenance and labour required, has led farmers to gradually abandon terrace farming. Consequently, many of the mountain terraces are no longer cultivated and dry stone walls are not maintained, causing sometimes a domino effect of collapsing terraces.

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

بلد:

Cyprus

Region/ State/ Province:

Nicosia

Further specification of location:

Northeast Pitsilia

Specify the spread of the Technology:
  • evenly spread over an area
If the Technology is evenly spread over an area, specify area covered (in km2):

30,9

If precise area is not known, indicate approximate area covered:
  • 10-100 km2
Comments:

Total area covered by the SLM Technology is 30.9 km2.
Dry-stone terraces characterise a large part of the landscape in Cyprus, and especially in communities around Troodos Mountains. There is a large variety of dry-stone terraces on the island, according to the morphology of each area and the accessibility to raw materials. The information reported here refer to the mountain communities in Northeast Pitsilia and particularly to the Peristerona watershed upstream communities (RECARE project case-study site).

2.6 Date of implementation

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:
  • more than 50 years ago (traditional)

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:
  • as part of a traditional system (> 50 years)
Comments (type of project, etc.):

Dry-stone terracing has been practice for centuries in Cyprus and in the study area. The rehabilitation of dry-stone terraces through community-based activities has been introduced in 2015 by the RECARE project case-study team and the local communities.

3. Classification of the SLM Technology

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

  • reduce, prevent, restore land degradation

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

الأراضي الزراعية

الأراضي الزراعية

  • Tree and shrub cropping
Tree and shrub cropping - Specify crops:
  • fruits, other
  • grapes
  • tree nuts (brazil nuts, pistachio, walnuts, almonds, etc.)
Number of growing seasons per year:
  • 1
حددها:

Longest growing period in days: 240, Longest growing period from month to month: Mid March to early November (grapevines)

Comments:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): Soil erosion by water from degraded and collapsing dry-stone terraces.
Loss of productive capacity.
Major land use problems (land users’ perception): Gradual collapse of dry-stone walls.
Root rot and yield failure as a result of water-logging which is linked to poor drainage in terraced fields.

3.4 Water supply

Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:
  • rainfed

3.5 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

  • cross-slope measure

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

structural measures

structural measures

  • S1: Terraces
Comments:

Main measures: structural measures

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

soil erosion by water

soil erosion by water

  • Wt: loss of topsoil/ surface erosion
  • Wo: offsite degradation effects
Comments:

Main type of degradation addressed: Wt: loss of topsoil / surface erosion
Secondary types of degradation addressed: Wo: offsite degradation effects
Main causes of degradation: other human induced causes (specify) (Gradual abandonment of mountain agriculture), other natural causes (avalanches, volcanic eruptions, mud flows, highly susceptible natural resources, extreme topography, etc.) specify (Steep mountain terrain)
Secondary causes of degradation: land tenure (Small, fractured agricultural plots), governance / institutional (Lack of institutions for terrace maintenance)

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:
  • prevent land degradation
  • restore/ rehabilitate severely degraded land

4. Technical specifications, implementation activities, inputs, and costs

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

Technical specifications (related to technical drawing):

(a) The typical terraces found in the study-area are narrow (1-3 m) to medium-base (3-6 m) bench terraces, constructed by cutting and filling in slopes between 20-40%. The height of terraces range between 0.75 to 2 meters, depending on the steepness and the morphology of each slope.

(b) The terraces are supported by walls, whereby stone - typically volcanic rock - is the only construction material without any binding mortar. Large and irregular stones are used for the foundations, while the more regular for the construction of walls. The smaller stones are placed in between the large stones as the linchpin, to provide better stability to the structure. The wall is built lengthwise following the foundations and it reclines inwards; declination from the foundations does not exceed 5%. The back side of the wall is filled-up with more irregular stones which are not suitable to be placed on the front side. The filling connects the wall with the soil and stabilises the structure, and allows the drainage of water that is collected from the terrace and is discharged through the stones of the wall.

Northeast Pitsilia, Nicosia
Technical knowledge required for land users: moderate (To maintain dry-stone wall terraces)
Technical knowledge required for Dry-stone artisans (experts builders): high (To reconstruct collapsed terraces)
Main technical functions: reduction of slope angle, sediment retention / trapping, sediment harvesting
Secondary technical functions: increase of infiltration, increase / maintain water stored in soil
Terrace: bench level
Vertical interval between structures (m): 1-2
Spacing between structures (m): 1-15
Construction material (stone): Natural volcanic rock available on the sites (mostly gabbro & diabase)
Lateral gradient along the structure: 0-8%

Author:

a: FAO, 2000 & b: TPH, 2007

4.2 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

other/ national currency (specify):

Euro

If relevant, indicate exchange rate from USD to local currency (e.g. 1 USD = 79.9 Brazilian Real): 1 USD =:

0,88

Indicate average wage cost of hired labour per day:

72.97

4.3 Establishment activities

Activity Timing (season)
1. Land leveling and foundation Early autumn or late spring
2. Collection and transfer of stones Early autumn or late spring
3. Construction of stone-wall Early autumn or late spring

4.4 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Labour 4000,0 45,6 182400,0 100,0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology 182400,0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology in USD 207272,73
Comments:

Duration of establishment phase: 83 month(s)

4.5 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

Activity Timing/ frequency
1. Repairing collapsed walls Early autumn (before onset of rains), only on collapsed walls

4.6 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Labour 200,0 9,12 1824,0 100,0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology 1824,0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology in USD 2072,73
Comments:

Machinery/ tools: Wedge, hammer, pick, hoe and bucket are the typical tools used for by stone builders for the construction and maintenance of dry-stone terraces.
The costs estimates are averages and were calculated for the length of terrace structures, i.e. per running meter of terrace walls. The average height of dry-stone walls is 1.5 meter and it takes approximately 5 hours/meter for a builder to fully construct it. This includes 1 hour/meter for land levelling and foundation, 1 hour/meter for the collection and transfer of the necessary stones and 3 hours/meter for building the wall. Stones are abundant in the area; builders do not charge for the stones but for the time required to collect and transfer. Also, each builder has its own tools (i.e. wedge, hammer, pick, hoe and bucket). Terrace builders charge 8 €/hour (or 9.12 $/hour). On average, there are approximately 4000 running meters of terrace walls per hectare. The above information is used to convert the construction cost per hectare.
Maintenance activities include reconstruction of the terrace walls, only in case of collapsing. The reconstruction takes 1 hour/meter. For the annual maintenance estimates, it is assumed that 200 out of 4000 meters of terrace walls per hectare (or 5%) will require maintenance. In other words, a newly constructed wall will be maintained once every 20 years, on average.

4.7 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

The principal input cost for the construction and maintenance of terraces is manual labour. There are only few dry-stone builders in the area.

5. Natural and human environment

5.1 Climate

Annual rainfall
  • < 250 mm
  • 251-500 mm
  • 501-750 mm
  • 751-1,000 mm
  • 1,001-1,500 mm
  • 1,501-2,000 mm
  • 2,001-3,000 mm
  • 3,001-4,000 mm
  • > 4,000 mm
Specifications/ comments on rainfall:

500-750mm: Seasonal rainfall (October to May) - Peristerona watershed upstream
250-500mm: Seasonal rainfall (October to May) - Peristerona watershed downstream

Agro-climatic zone
  • sub-humid
  • semi-arid

Thermal climate class: subtropics. Below 1000m a.s.l.
Thermal climate class: temperate. Above 1000m a.s.l.

5.2 Topography

Slopes on average:
  • flat (0-2%)
  • gentle (3-5%)
  • moderate (6-10%)
  • rolling (11-15%)
  • hilly (16-30%)
  • steep (31-60%)
  • very steep (>60%)
Landforms:
  • plateau/plains
  • ridges
  • mountain slopes
  • hill slopes
  • footslopes
  • valley floors
Altitudinal zone:
  • 0-100 m a.s.l.
  • 101-500 m a.s.l.
  • 501-1,000 m a.s.l.
  • 1,001-1,500 m a.s.l.
  • 1,501-2,000 m a.s.l.
  • 2,001-2,500 m a.s.l.
  • 2,501-3,000 m a.s.l.
  • 3,001-4,000 m a.s.l.
  • > 4,000 m a.s.l.
Indicate if the Technology is specifically applied in:
  • not relevant

5.3 Soils

Soil depth on average:
  • very shallow (0-20 cm)
  • shallow (21-50 cm)
  • moderately deep (51-80 cm)
  • deep (81-120 cm)
  • very deep (> 120 cm)
Soil texture (topsoil):
  • coarse/ light (sandy)
  • medium (loamy, silty)
Topsoil organic matter:
  • medium (1-3%)
  • low (<1%)

5.4 Water availability and quality

Ground water table:

> 50 m

Availability of surface water:

medium

Water quality (untreated):

good drinking water

5.5 Biodiversity

Species diversity:
  • medium

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

Sedentary or nomadic:
  • Sedentary
Market orientation of production system:
  • mixed (subsistence/ commercial)
Off-farm income:
  • 10-50% of all income
Relative level of wealth:
  • average
Individuals or groups:
  • individual/ household
Level of mechanization:
  • manual work
  • mechanized/ motorized
Gender:
  • women
  • men
Indicate other relevant characteristics of the land users:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users
Population density: 10-50 persons/km2
Annual population growth: negative; 4%
100% of the land users are average wealthy.
Off-farm income specification: Farming is a part-time activity for most land users in the area.

5.7 Average area of land used by land users applying the Technology

  • < 0.5 ha
  • 0.5-1 ha
  • 1-2 ha
  • 2-5 ha
  • 5-15 ha
  • 15-50 ha
  • 50-100 ha
  • 100-500 ha
  • 500-1,000 ha
  • 1,000-10,000 ha
  • > 10,000 ha
Is this considered small-, medium- or large-scale (referring to local context)?
  • small-scale
Comments:

The average for Cyprus is 3.4 ha/holding

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:
  • individual, titled
Land use rights:
  • individual
Comments:

Agricultural land is privately owned

5.9 Access to services and infrastructure

health:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
education:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
technical assistance:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
employment (e.g. off-farm):
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
markets:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
energy:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
roads and transport:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
drinking water and sanitation:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
financial services:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good

6. Impacts and concluding statements

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

crop production

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Terraces create agricultural land for crop production in slopes. However, the establishment of terraces does not imply increased crop yield.

production area

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Without terraces on mountain slopes, crop farming would have been almost impossible

Water availability and quality

demand for irrigation water

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

Well constructed and maintained terraces improve water drainage and retain soil moisture.

Income and costs

expenses on agricultural inputs

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

More costly to grown on mountain terraces than in the plains. Also, maintenance of collapsed terrace walls is costly.

farm income

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Farming in the study-site is practiced almost exclusively on terraces; well maintained terraces can increase farm income.

workload

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

Maintenance of collapsed terrace walls requires manual labour

Socio-cultural impacts

food security/ self-sufficiency

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

Partly for those land users that still practice mountain terrace farming.

cultural opportunities

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

When terraces are maintained/rehabilitated through community-based activities.

recreational opportunities

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

When terraces are maintained/rehabilitated through community-based activities.

community institutions

weakened
strengthened
Comments/ specify:

When terraces are maintained/rehabilitated through community-based activities.

SLM/ land degradation knowledge

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

Dry-stone terracing is the typical soil conservation technology in the study-site

conflict mitigation

worsened
improved

Contribution to human well-being

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Terraced landscapes in the Troodos mountains represent a longstanding tradition of self-sustained communities. In the past, terrace farming was a main activity and has contributed to the livelihoods and well-being of these communities. Nowadays, terrace farming is still practiced by much fewer land users, mainly on part-time basis.

Ecological impacts

Water cycle/ runoff

harvesting/ collection of water

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

One of the main functions of terraces.

surface runoff

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

One of the main functions of terraces.

Soil

soil cover

reduced
improved
Comments/ specify:

When terraces are maintained

soil loss

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

One of the main functions of terraces.

Biodiversity: vegetation, animals

habitat diversity

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Dry-stone terraces create biodiversity habitats, especially for reptiles and arthropods

Climate and disaster risk reduction

fire risk

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

Well maintained terraces have less weeds than abandoned terraces, thus reducing the fire risk

Other ecological impacts

Abandoned or poorly maintained terraces can result in increased erosion, e.g. through the collapsing

low impact
high impact

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

downstream flooding

increased
reduced
Comments/ specify:

Upstream terraces can reduce to a certain extent reduced downstream flooding

downstream siltation

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

Upstream terraces can reduce to a certain extent downstream siltation

damage on public/ private infrastructure

increased
reduced
Comments/ specify:

Well maintain terraces reduce damage (erosion) on public (e.g. roads) and private (e.g. neighbours fields) infrastructure

6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change
Season increase or decrease How does the Technology cope with it?
annual temperature increase well

Climate-related extremes (disasters)

Meteorological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
local rainstorm not well
local windstorm not known
Climatological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
drought well
Hydrological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
general (river) flood not well

Other climate-related consequences

Other climate-related consequences
How does the Technology cope with it?
reduced growing period well

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?
Short-term returns:

negative

Long-term returns:

positive

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?
Short-term returns:

slightly negative

Long-term returns:

positive

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

  • > 50%
If available, quantify (no. of households and/ or area covered):

90% of the land user families and 8% of the stated area

Of all those who have adopted the Technology, how many did so spontaneously, i.e. without receiving any material incentives/ payments?
  • 11-50%
Comments:

10% of land user families have adopted the Technology without any external material support
90% of land user families have adopted the Technology with external material support
Comments on acceptance with external material support: The majority of existing terraces in the area were subsidized.
There is a little trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology
Comments on adoption trend: There are very few farmers that maintain existing terraces or construct new ones.

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Indigenous technology of great agro-ecological value, adapted to local conditions.
Soil maintained on steep mountain slopes, thus reducing soil loss due to water erosion.
Terraces maintain the productive capacity of soils on steep slopes.
Water retention and longer storage of soil moisture, thus improving water use efficiency.
Terraces are part of cultural landscapes and heritage

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view How can they be overcome?
Maintenance of dry-stone wall terraces is costly and labour intensive. Promote community-based terrace maintenance and utilise available community/subsidy funds for small cash compensation to terrace experts.
Terrace maintenance requires expert knowledge. Motivate the younger generation to engage in part-time terrace farming.
Aging of the dry-stone experts. Train young land users/owners on dry-stone terracing.
Technology does not lend itself to mechanisation. Not possible to overcome.

7. References and links

7.1 Methods/ sources of information

  • interviews with land users
When were the data compiled (in the field)?

01/09/2015

7.2 References to available publications

Title, author, year, ISBN:

FAO, 2000. Manual on integrated soil management and conservation practices. FAO Land and Water Bulletin 8, Rome, Italy: 230 pp.TPH, 2007. Dry stone constructions of Cyprus. PIO, Nicosia.

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