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Technologies
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Micro-catchments for rainwater harvesting [Kenya]

Micro-catchments

technologies_2895 - Kenya

Completeness: 94%

1. General information

1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Key resource person(s)

SLM specialist:

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

When were the data compiled (in the field)?

01/10/2010

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

Yes

1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology

Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?

No

Comments:

Rainwater harvesting using furrow micro-catchments created by ox-driven plough is a common practice among agropastoral communities in semi-arid southeastern Kenya. It is an important component of seedbed preparation prior to the planting season. This technology is aimed at harvesting rainwater to prolong water availability and soil moisture content for seed germination and subsequent growth and development of the emerging seedlings.

1.5 Reference to Questionnaire(s) on SLM Approaches

2. Description of the SLM Technology

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

Ox-ploughed furrow micro-catchments are intentionally built as part of seedbed preparation to harvest rainwater. Commonly used in dryland environments, the micro-catchment prolong water availability for seed germination and growth and development of the emerging seedlings.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

Creation of furrow micro-catchments using an ox-driven plough is a traditional seedbed preparation practice among agropastoral communities inhabiting arid and semi-arid environments in Kenya. The process involves minimal soil disturbance by intentionally creating shallow furrows (about 20 cm depth) using an ox-driven plough. Oxen commonly used predominantly have a light and bright skin coat. This is aimed at reflecting away excess heat from the sun. Consequently, the oxen are less fatigued and can therefore plough for a longer period of time. The furrow microcatchments are intentionally created across the slope to harvest rainwater to prolong water availability for seed germnination and subsequent growth and development of emerging seedlings. Furthermore, the ox-plough breaks the soil hard-pan common in dryland environments. Therefore, the microcatchments also facilitate seedling root penetration to the lower horizons. Prolonged water availability, especially in dryland environments, promotes growth and development of fast growing and early maturing drought tolerant crops and indigenous pasture production, consequently better crop yields and pasture production.

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

Country:

Kenya

Region/ State/ Province:

Kibwezi, Eastern Kenya

Further specification of location:

Kibwezi, Makueni County, Kenya

Comments:

Locations i.e. Kibwezi (Makueni County) and Kitui (Kitui County) are typical semi-arid environments in southeastern Kenya, where creation of micro-catchments using ox-driven plough is a traditional practice.

2.6 Date of implementation

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:
  • more than 50 years ago (traditional)

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:
  • as part of a traditional system (> 50 years)

3. Classification of the SLM Technology

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

  • improve production
  • reduce, prevent, restore land degradation

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

Cropland

Cropland

  • Annual cropping
Grazing land

Grazing land

Extensive grazing land:
  • Nomadism
  • Semi-nomadism/ pastoralism
  • Ranching

3.3 Further information about land use

Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:
  • rainfed
Number of growing seasons per year:
  • 2
Specify:

Two rainy seasons in Kenya; long rains (March-April-May), short rains (October-November-December)

3.4 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

  • minimal soil disturbance
  • integrated soil fertility management
  • water harvesting

3.5 Spread of the Technology

Specify the spread of the Technology:
  • evenly spread over an area
If the Technology is evenly spread over an area, indicate approximate area covered:
  • > 10,000 km2
Comments:

Common practice in southeastern Kenya counties of Kitui (24,000 km2), Machakos (5900 km2), and Makueni (8000 km2)

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

agronomic measures

agronomic measures

  • A3: Soil surface treatment
structural measures

structural measures

  • S4: Level ditches, pits

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

soil erosion by water

soil erosion by water

  • Wt: loss of topsoil/ surface erosion
physical soil deterioration

physical soil deterioration

  • Pc: compaction
  • Pi: soil sealing

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:
  • reduce land degradation
  • restore/ rehabilitate severely degraded land

4. Technical specifications, implementation activities, inputs, and costs

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

Author:

Kevin Z Mganga

Date:

04/07/2017

4.2 Technical specifications/ explanations of technical drawing

Ox-ploughed furrow micro-catchments 15-20 cm deep and 10-15 cm wide. This is a typical traditional method of seedbed preparation in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) in southeastern Kenya. The micro-cathcments are intentionally made prior to the rainy season. Thereafter, the seeds are then sown along the micro-catchments to harvest rainwater. This prolongs water availability and maintains sufficient soil moisture content to facilitate germination and subsequent growth and development of the seedlings. Moreover, the ox-driven plough breaks the soil hard-pan common in dryland environments. This minimal soil disturbance promotes root penetration.

Seeds are covered with light amount of soil to facilitate seedling emergence.

Generally, the micro-catchments are created across the slope. Slope should be generally flat or very gentle (<5%) to reduce the speed of run-off, thus prevent soil erosion.

4.3 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

Specify how costs and inputs were calculated:
  • per Technology area
Indicate size and area unit:

Hectare

Specify currency used for cost calculations:
  • US Dollars
Indicate average wage cost of hired labour per day:

5

4.4 Establishment activities

Activity Type of measure Timing
1. Creation of furrow micro-catchments with ox-plough Vegetative Before onset of rains

4.5 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Casual and Household Labour person-days 1.0 20.0 20.0 100.0
Equipment Hiring ox-driven plough person-days 1.0 400.0 400.0 100.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology 420.0

4.6 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

Activity Type of measure Timing/ frequency
1. Re-ploughing and enforcing micro-catchments Vegetative Before onset of next rains

4.7 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Casual and household labour person-days 1.0 5.0 5.0 100.0
Equipment Hiring ox-driven plough person-days 1.0 400.0 400.0 100.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology 405.0

4.8 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

Cost of hiring ox-plough - before the onset of the rains, there is a high demand for ox-ploughs for seedbed preparation and creation of micro-catchments. This increased demand (i.e. hiring the ox-plough) greatly influences the costs.

5. Natural and human environment

5.1 Climate

Annual rainfall
  • < 250 mm
  • 251-500 mm
  • 501-750 mm
  • 751-1,000 mm
  • 1,001-1,500 mm
  • 1,501-2,000 mm
  • 2,001-3,000 mm
  • 3,001-4,000 mm
  • > 4,000 mm
Specifications/ comments on rainfall:

Highly variable in amount, space, time and period.

Indicate the name of the reference meteorological station considered:

DWA Sisal Plantation Kibwezi and Makindu Meteorological Department

Agro-climatic zone
  • semi-arid

5.2 Topography

Slopes on average:
  • flat (0-2%)
  • gentle (3-5%)
  • moderate (6-10%)
  • rolling (11-15%)
  • hilly (16-30%)
  • steep (31-60%)
  • very steep (>60%)
Landforms:
  • plateau/plains
  • ridges
  • mountain slopes
  • hill slopes
  • footslopes
  • valley floors
Altitudinal zone:
  • 0-100 m a.s.l.
  • 101-500 m a.s.l.
  • 501-1,000 m a.s.l.
  • 1,001-1,500 m a.s.l.
  • 1,501-2,000 m a.s.l.
  • 2,001-2,500 m a.s.l.
  • 2,501-3,000 m a.s.l.
  • 3,001-4,000 m a.s.l.
  • > 4,000 m a.s.l.
Indicate if the Technology is specifically applied in:
  • convex situations

5.3 Soils

Soil depth on average:
  • very shallow (0-20 cm)
  • shallow (21-50 cm)
  • moderately deep (51-80 cm)
  • deep (81-120 cm)
  • very deep (> 120 cm)
Soil texture (topsoil):
  • coarse/ light (sandy)
  • medium (loamy, silty)
Soil texture (> 20 cm below surface):
  • coarse/ light (sandy)
  • medium (loamy, silty)
Topsoil organic matter:
  • medium (1-3%)
  • low (<1%)
If available, attach full soil description or specify the available information, e.g. soil type, soil PH/ acidity, Cation Exchange Capacity, nitrogen, salinity etc.

Luvisol, %C 0.75-1.56%; %N 0.3-0.4%; P 13-15 ppm; CEC 6-19 me/100 g soil; K 1-2 me/100 g soil; Bulk density 1.2-1.3 g cm3; soil pH 8

5.4 Water availability and quality

Ground water table:

5-50 m

Availability of surface water:

medium

Water quality (untreated):

poor drinking water (treatment required)

Is water salinity a problem?

No

Is flooding of the area occurring?

No

Comments and further specifications on water quality and quantity:

Water quantity and quality is highly dependant on rainfall

5.5 Biodiversity

Species diversity:
  • medium
Habitat diversity:
  • medium

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

Sedentary or nomadic:
  • Sedentary
  • Semi-nomadic
Market orientation of production system:
  • subsistence (self-supply)
  • mixed (subsistence/ commercial
Off-farm income:
  • 10-50% of all income
Relative level of wealth:
  • poor
  • average
Individuals or groups:
  • individual/ household
  • groups/ community
Level of mechanization:
  • manual work
  • animal traction
Gender:
  • women
  • men
Age of land users:
  • youth
  • middle-aged

5.7 Average area of land owned or leased by land users applying the Technology

  • < 0.5 ha
  • 0.5-1 ha
  • 1-2 ha
  • 2-5 ha
  • 5-15 ha
  • 15-50 ha
  • 50-100 ha
  • 100-500 ha
  • 500-1,000 ha
  • 1,000-10,000 ha
  • > 10,000 ha
Is this considered small-, medium- or large-scale (referring to local context)?
  • small-scale
  • medium-scale

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:
  • communal/ village
  • individual, titled
Land use rights:
  • communal (organized)
  • individual
Water use rights:
  • communal (organized)
  • individual
Comments:

Land use rights - both communal and individual
Water use rights - both communal and individual

5.9 Access to services and infrastructure

health:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
education:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
technical assistance:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
employment (e.g. off-farm):
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
markets:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
energy:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
roads and transport:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
drinking water and sanitation:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
financial services:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good

6. Impacts and concluding statements

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

crop production

decreased
increased

fodder production

decreased
increased

Ecological impacts

Soil

soil moisture

decreased
increased
Comments/ specify:

Rainwater harvested along micro-catchments improves soil moisture content and prolongs water availability.

soil loss

increased
decreased
Comments/ specify:

Micro-catchments reduce the kinetic energy of rainwater by trapping runoff, thus reduce soil loss.

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

damage on neighbours' fields

increased
reduced
Comments/ specify:

Damage on neighbours fields is greatly reduced. Micro-catchments trap rainwater, thus reduces runoff which might damage a neighbours field, especially located downslope.

damage on public/ private infrastructure

increased
reduced
Comments/ specify:

Damage on public and private roads is greatly reduced. Micro-catchments trap rainwater, thus reduces runoff which might damage infrastructure

6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change
Season Type of climatic change/ extreme How does the Technology cope with it?
annual rainfall decrease moderately
seasonal rainfall wet/ rainy season decrease moderately

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?
Short-term returns:

slightly positive

Long-term returns:

slightly positive

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?
Short-term returns:

slightly positive

Long-term returns:

slightly positive

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

  • more than 50%
Of all those who have adopted the Technology, how many have did so spontaneously, i.e. without receiving any material incentives/ payments?
  • 50-90%

6.6 Adaptation

Has the Technology been modified recently to adapt to changing conditions?

No

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the land user’s view
Relatively a cheap method of in-situ rainwater harvesting to harness water availability for crop and pasture production.
Prolong rainfed water availability
Breaks the soil hardpan developed over time due to continuous cultivation and hoof action of grazing animals. This promotes rainwater infiltration to lower horizon, thus minimizes runoff.
Reduced human labour requirement and faster method of seedbed preparation compared to hand held hoe
Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Breaks the soil hardpan developed over time due to continuous cultivation and hoof action of grazing animals. This promotes rainwater infiltration to lower horizon, thus minimizes runoff.
Prolong rainfed water availability
Relatively cheap
Reduced human labour requirement and faster method of seedbed preparation compared to hand held hoe

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the land user’s view How can they be overcome?
Ox-plough availability and accessibility i.e. demand, if not individually owned Supply affordable ox-driven ploughs to rural households
Oxen need training before they can be used for ploughing. This takes some time. Research outreach and extension services
Oxen get exhausted thus can´t plough for many hours in the drylands Simple and light mechanization for creating furrow microcatchments
Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view How can they be overcome?
High costs of hiring ox-ploughs when in high demand Joint ownership of ox-ploughs among neighbours, agropastoral farmer groups to eliminate the cost of hiring.
Semi-permanent - i.e. don´t last beyond a growing season and therefore new ones need to be created every growing season. Creation of macrocatchments and/or trenches that are deeper and last longer.

7. References and links

7.1 Methods/ sources of information

  • field visits, field surveys

>40 informants

  • interviews with land users

> 40 land users

7.2 References to available publications

Title, author, year, ISBN:

KZ Mganga, NKR Musimba, MM Nyangito, DM Nyariki, AW Mwang’ombe. 2015. The choice of grass species to combat desertification in semi-arid Kenyan rangelands is greatly influenced by their forage value for livestock. Grass and Forage Science 70: 161-167.

Available from where? Costs?

Grass and Forage Science Journal; USD 38

Title, author, year, ISBN:

3. KZ Mganga, NKR Musimba, DM Nyariki. 2015. Combining sustainable land management technologies to combat land degradation and improve rural livelihoods in semi-arid lands in Kenya. Environmental Management 56: 1538-1548

Available from where? Costs?

Environmental Management Journal, USD 43.34

Title, author, year, ISBN:

2. KZ Mganga, NKR Musimba, DM Nyariki. 2015. Competition indices of three perennial grasses used to rehabilitate degraded semi-arid rangelands in Kenya. The Rangelands Journal 37: 489-495

Available from where? Costs?

The Rangelands Journal, USD 25

7.3 Links to relevant information which is available online

Title/ description:

The choice of grass species to combat desertification in semi-arid Kenyan rangelands is greatly influenced by their forage value for livestock

URL:

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gfs.12089/abstract

Title/ description:

Combining Sustainable Land Management Technologies to Combat Land Degradation and Improve Rural Livelihoods in Semi-arid Lands in Kenya

URL:

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00267-015-0579-9

Title/ description:

Competition indices of three perennial grasses used to rehabilitate degraded semi-arid rangelands in Kenya

URL:

http://www.publish.csiro.au/RJ/RJ15023

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