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Afforestation with Pinus Halepensis after the fire of 1979 (La Molinera) [España]

Repoblación “La Molinera” con Pino Halepensis después del incendio del año 1979 (Spanish)

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1. Información general

1.2 Detalles de contacto de las personas de referencia e instituciones involucradas en la evaluación y la documentación de la Tecnología

Persona(s) de referencia clave

Especialista MST:
Especialista MST:

Valdecantos Alejandro

Fundación Centro de Estudios Ambientales del Mediterráneo (CEAM)

España

Especialista MST:

Colomer Vicente

Forest Agent Generalitat Valenciana (Conselleria de infraestructura, territorio y medio ambiente)

España

Nombre del proyecto que financió la documentación/ evaluación de la Tecnología (si fuera relevante)
Catastrophic shifts in drylands (EU-CASCADE)
Nombre de la(s) institución(es) que facilitaron la documentación/ evaluación de la Tecnología (si fuera relevante)
Centro de Estudios Ambientales del Mediterraneo (CEAM) - España

1.3 Condiciones referidas al uso de datos documentados mediante WOCAT

El compilador y la/s persona(s) de referencia claves aceptan las condiciones acerca del uso de los datos documentados mediante WOCAT:

1.4 Declaración de la sostenibilidad de la Tecnología descrita

¿La Tecnología aquí descrita resulta problemática en relación a la degradación de la tierra, de tal forma que no puede considerársela una tecnología sostenible para el manejo de la tierra?

No

2. Descripción de la Tecnología MST

2.1 Breve descripción de la Tecnología

Definición de la Tecnología:

Post-fire afforestation with Pinus Halepensis to reduce soil erosion and to enhance forest growth.

2.2 Descripción detallada de la Tecnología

Descripción:

As a consequence of the devastating fire of the year 1979 which destroyed 33’000 ha of forest, strong erosion processes occurred on the bare soil and hindered the vegetation to regrow. Furthermore, this region was already abandoned (rural exodus) and missing management practices increased the problem of erosion. Therefore the government mandated to afforest the burnt areas in 1985.

The main purpose of the afforestation was to reduce the soil erosion (which was severe at that time) by planting trees, which increases soil stability and enables forest growth again. But the state also wanted to ensure wood extraction in the future. Furthermore, the visual impact was an important driver for afforesting this area.

The afforestation was executed in the winter of 1985 (November-February/March) by the regional forest services (Conselleria de agricultura). Forest engineers, who worked for the state and planned the project, collaborated with forest agents whereas the involved forest agents contracted local villagers to help afforesting these areas. The forest agent acted as a link between engineer and forest brigade and controlled if the brigade executed what the engineer proposed. He also provided assistance to the workers. The forest brigade was paid by day-if it was raining, people did not work and did not get any salary.
Nobody could provide direct information on the afforestation process in 1985 but there are not many differences of how they did it in the past and how it works today. The planting holes (60cm x 60cm x 60cm) were created with a machine (Caterpillar) using a “spoon” to open a hole and cover it again. This process loosens the soil (only possible in soils which are free from big stones). It should be noted that they did not use a ripper, they knew that the soil is destroyed using this technique. The seedlings were planted manually by the forest workers and arranged linearly because this facilitated the handling of the machines. Since the soil had a low stone content, it was suitable for the establishment of a forest.
The afforested area covered around 100 ha (not continuously). Today, the costs of an afforestation are around 1500 Euro per ha, but in the past it was less expensive. They only planted Pinus Halepensis. Today, a seedling of this tree species costs between 20 and 60 Cents. If the regional forest services have their own nurseries, they do not need to spend money to buy seedlings.
The success of an afforestation depends on numerous factors such as aspect and humidity (better on north-facing slopes), soil amount/fertility (better conditions on former cultivated fields), origin of the seedlings (adapted to the local climatic conditions), variability/uncertainty of the weather conditions (e.g. droughts, freezing). Usually a plantation is done in October/November and therefore especially the first summer determines the success. If it is too dry the plant will not grow (roots are too short to reach the humidity deeper in the ground). Further, the availability of trained people and the selection of appropriate machines are crucial.
The documented afforestation is one of a few examples of afforestation trials which succeeded. Today there is a forest where young pines are growing naturally ("children" of the planted ones), but also resprouter species (e.g. Quercus) can be found, which regenerated without having been planted and apparently were dispersed by birds.
But there are also some problems related to this afforestation. The forest agent explained that there is a high pest risk since monoplantations are less resilient to diseases (sick or dead plants in turn increase the fire risk). Another problem is that the trees were planted too densely (800-1000 plants per ha with a spacing of 5-10m) which requires recurrent management of the forest. Knowing about this problem, around the year 2003 they managed the area doing a selective clearing to reduce both the continuity and the competition between the species and thus also reduced the fire risk (“ayuda regeneración”). But the forest has become extremely dense again, thus increasing the risk of fires. There is a need to manage this area again and to extract biomass (selective clearing), but unfortunately no management project is planned for the near future.

The region of Ayora is mountainous with a dry subhumid climate (~380 mm annual rainfall). The risk of fire incidence is at its highest from June to September when there are adverse conditions like drought, high temperatures and strong winds (mainly the winds coming from central Spain, called “poniente”).
The population density is very low and there are only few job opportunities (e.g. marginal agriculture, grazing, hunting, beekeeping). The plantation provided jobs for rural people. Also today forest management could be a source for jobs.

2.3 Fotografías de la Tecnología

2.5 País/ región/ lugares donde la Tecnología fue aplicada y que se hallan comprendidos por esta evaluación

País:

España

Región/ Estado/ Provincia:

Spain, Valencia

Especifique más el lugar :

Ayora, La Molinera

Especifique la difusión de la Tecnología:
  • distribuida parejamente sobre un área
Si se desconoce el área precisa, indique el área aproximada cubierta:
  • 0.1-1 km2
Comentarios:

Boundary points of the Technology area: In the kmz file the whole afforestation of 1985/1986 is shown but it is not clear whether the whole area was afforested successfully. The coordinates indicated above show the location I visited which had success.

2.6 Fecha de la implementación

Si no se conoce el año preciso, indique la fecha aproximada:
  • 10-50 años atrás

2.7 Introducción de la Tecnología

Especifique cómo se introdujo la Tecnología:
  • mediante proyectos/ intervenciones externas
Comentarios (tipo de proyecto, etc.):

The project was designed by the regional forest services of Valencia in 1985 (“Conselleria de agricultura” at that time, today it is called “Conselleria de infraestructura, territorio y medio ambiente”).

3. Clasificación de la Tecnología MST

3.1 Propósito(s) principal(es) de la Tecnología MST

  • reducir, prevenir, restaurar la degradación del suelo
  • conservar el ecosistema

3.2 Tipo(s) actuales de uso de la tierra donde se aplica la Tecnología

Bosques

Bosques

Tipo de árbol:
  • Especies de Pinus
Productos y servicios:
  • Madera
  • Frutos y nueces
  • Otros productos forestales
  • Conservación/ Protección de la naturaleza
  • Protección contra desastres naturales
  • hunting
Comentarios:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): The past land use resulted in a change of the vegetation composition (e.g. through removal of resprouter species). Due to rural exodus and land abandonment, the natural succession took place and fire-prone early-successional species colonized the abandoned fields. The vegetation grew without any control which seems to have caused the devastating fire of the year 1979 which destroyed 33’000 ha of forest. As a consequence of this fire, strong erosion processes occurred on the bare soil and hindered the vegetation to regrow. Furthermore, people which still lived there lost their properties after the fire and moved away as well. A consequence of the depopulation was a lack of management practices which increased the problem of post-fire erosion.

Number of growing seasons per year:
1

3.5 Grupo MST al que pertenece la Tecnología

  • manejo de plantación forestal

3.6 Medidas MST que componen la Tecnología

medidas vegetativas

medidas vegetativas

  • V1: Cubierta de árboles y arbustos
Comentarios:

Type of vegetative measures: aligned: -linear

3.7 Principales tipos de degradación del suelo encarados con la Tecnología

erosión de suelos por agua

erosión de suelos por agua

  • Wt: pérdida de capa arable/ erosión de la superficie
degradación biológica

degradación biológica

  • Bc: reducción de la cobertura vegetal del suelo
  • Bf: efectos nocivos de los fuegos
Comentarios:

Main causes of degradation: deforestation / removal of natural vegetation (incl. forest fires) (Deforestation in the past (removal of resprouter species), land abandonment, uncontrolled growth of fire-prone vegetation, afforestations. The fire of 1979 destroyed 33'000 ha of forest.), population pressure (Vast areas were deforested in the past for agriculture, important key species were removed. After land abandonment there was a lack of management strategies), land tenure (After the fire, many people lost their properties and had to move away, therefore no management for post-fire erosion was applied.), labour availability (In the past there was outmigration from the region to the big cities and therefore there was a lack of management before and after the fire.), inputs and infrastructure: (roads, markets, distribution of water points, other, …) (The huge fire of 1979 could not be stopped easily because of the lack of fire extinction media like water ponds, streets, transport media (this has been improved now))

3.8 Prevención, reducción o restauración de la degradación del suelo

Especifique la meta de la Tecnología con relación a la degradación de la tierra:
  • prevenir la degradación del suelo
  • restaurar/ rehabilitar tierra severamente degradada

4. Especificaciones técnicas, actividades de implementación, insumos y costos

4.1 Dibujo técnico de la Tecnología

Especificaciones técnicas (relacionadas al dibujo técnico):

The Pinus Halepensis seedlings were planted on a line in order to facilitate the operation of machines. The linear arrangement is still visible when observing the plantation from the distance, but when finding oneself within the forest this alignment is not visible anymore since the forest grew very densely. A part of today's forest grew naturally after planting the trees - some young pines but also some resprouters (e.g. Quercus) can be found which is pleasant and shows the success of this plantation effort. However, it would have been better to plant less trees with a bigger distance between the individuals.
To reduce the high density and continuity of the forest (and thus to reduce the fire risk) a selective clearing would be required but currently the state does not invest money in forest management practices. Without extraction of biomass this dense forest contains a high risk of fire.
Location: Ayora. Valencia, Spain
Date: 11-12-2013

Technical knowledge required for field staff / advisors: high (The forest agent needs a high technical knowledge. He acts as a link between engineer and forest brigade and controls if the brigade executes what the engineer dictates. He also provides assistance.)
Technical knowledge required for Engineer: high (The forest engineer works for the state and plans the project, therefore he needs a high technical knowledge)
Technical knowledge required for Forest brigade/workers: low (The forest workers only execute what the engineer and the forest agent tell them. They need to know how to handle the machines but don’t have to judge where to plant which species.)

Main technical functions: control of raindrop splash, control of dispersed runoff: retain / trap, control of dispersed runoff: impede / retard, control of concentrated runoff: retain / trap, control of concentrated runoff: impede / retard, improvement of ground cover, stabilisation of soil (eg by tree roots against land slides), sediment retention / trapping, sediment harvesting, increase of biomass (quantity)
Secondary technical functions: increase of surface roughness, increase in organic matter, increase in nutrient availability (supply, recycling,…), increase of infiltration, promotion of vegetation species and varieties (quality, eg palatable fodder)

Aligned: -linear
Vegetative material: T : trees / shrubs
Number of plants per (ha): 800-1000
Vertical interval within rows / strips / blocks (m): 5-10
Trees/ shrubs species: Pinus Halepensis

Autor:

Nina Lauterburg

4.2 Información general sobre el cálculo de insumos y costos

otra / moneda nacional (especifique):

Euro

Si fuera relevante, indique la tasa de cambio de dólares americanos a la moneda local (ej. 1 U$ = 79.9 Reales Brasileros): 1 U$ =:

0,74

Indique el costo promedio del salario de trabajo contratado por día:

47.00

4.3 Actividades de establecimiento

Actividad Momento (estación)
1. Digging holes (60cm x 60cm x 60cm) Once (1985), between November and February/March
2. Plantation of the seedlings (pinus halepensis) Once (1985), between November and February/March

4.4 Costos e insumos necesarios para el establecimiento

Especifique insumo Unidad Cantidad Costos por unidad Costos totales por insumo % de los costos cubiertos por los usuarios de las tierras
Equipo machine use ha 1,0 4857,0 4857,0
Costos totales para establecer la Tecnología 4857,0
Costos totales para establecer la Tecnología en USD 6563,51
Comentarios:

Duration of establishment phase: 4 month(s)

4.5 Actividades de establecimiento/ recurrentes

Actividad Momento/ frequencia
1. Selective clearing "ayuda regeneración" (only done once in 2003 but should be done again to decrease the risk of fires and competition between species) late spring 2003

4.6 Costos e insumos necesarios para actividades de mantenimiento/ recurrentes (por año)

Especifique insumo Unidad Cantidad Costos por unidad Costos totales por insumo % de los costos cubiertos por los usuarios de las tierras
Equipo machine use ha 1,0 2428,0 2428,0
Indique los costos totales para mantenecer la Tecnología 2428,0
Costos totales para mantener la Tecnología en USD 3281,08
Comentarios:

The costs were calculated for the application of the technology on one hectare. Furthermore, the total costs of the afforestation were calculated with today’s costs because the costs at the time it was implemented are not known.
The currency rate (Euro-Dollar) was calculated on November 16th, 2013.

4.7 Factores más determinantes que afectan los costos:

Describa los factores más determinantes que afectan los costos:

The costs of a plantation can be affected by numerous factors, such as slope (if the slope is steep, the work is much more difficult and takes more time, also because machines cannot be used on steep slopes), distance from a street (people can work less in a day if they have to walk far to plant), stone content of the soil (if there are many stones the work is much more difficult for the machines), soil type (plantations work much better on previous cropland because the soil is more fertile), origin of the seedlings (adapted to the local climatic conditions), variability/uncertainty of the weather conditions (e.g. droughts, freezing). If there are adverse climatic conditions or other negative circumstances the afforestation will not work well and this might cause higher costs.

5. Entorno natural y humano

5.1 Clima

Lluvia anual
  • < 250 mm
  • 251-500 mm
  • 501-750 mm
  • 751-1,000 mm
  • 1,001-1,500 mm
  • 1,501-2,000 mm
  • 2,001-3,000 mm
  • 3,001-4,000 mm
  • > 4,000 mm
Especificaciones/ comentarios sobre la cantidad de lluvia:

Ayora: 383mm

Zona agroclimática
  • Sub-húmeda

Thermal climate class: temperate

5.2 Topografía

Pendientes en promedio:
  • plana (0-2 %)
  • ligera (3-5%)
  • moderada (6-10%)
  • ondulada (11-15%)
  • accidentada (16-30%)
  • empinada (31-60%)
  • muy empinada (>60%)
Formaciones telúricas:
  • meseta/ planicies
  • cordilleras
  • laderas montañosas
  • laderas de cerro
  • pies de monte
  • fondo del valle
Zona altitudinal:
  • 0-100 m s.n.m.
  • 101-500 m s.n.m.
  • 501-1,000 m s.n.m
  • 1,001-1,500 m s.n.m
  • 1,501-2,000 m s.n.m
  • 2,001-2,500 m s.n.m
  • 2,501-3,000 m s.n.m
  • 3,001-4,000 m s.n.m
  • > 4,000 m s.n.m

5.3 Suelos

Profundidad promedio del suelo:
  • muy superficial (0-20 cm)
  • superficial (21-50 cm)
  • moderadamente profunda (51-80 cm)
  • profunda (81-120 cm)
  • muy profunda (>120 cm)
Textura del suelo (capa arable):
  • fina/ pesada (arcilla)
Materia orgánica de capa arable:
  • media (1-3%)

5.4 Disponibilidad y calidad de agua

Agua subterránea:

5-50 m

Disponibilidad de aguas superficiales:

pobre/ ninguna

Calidad de agua (sin tratar):

agua potable de buena calidad

5.5 Biodiversidad

Diversidad de especies:
  • mediana

5.6 Las características de los usuarios de la tierra que aplican la Tecnología

Orientación del mercado del sistema de producción:
  • mixta (subsistencia/ comercial)
Individuos o grupos:
  • empleado (compañía, gobierno)
Género:
  • hombres
Indique otras características relevantes de los usuarios de las tierras:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users
Difference in the involvement of women and men: The work was mainly done by men, because it is heavy work and it is not usual that women are working in the forest.
Population density: < 10 persons/km2
Annual population growth: negative

5.8 Tenencia de tierra, uso de tierra y derechos de uso de agua

Tenencia de tierra:
  • estado
  • individual, con título
Derechos de uso de tierra:
  • individual
  • public/open access but organised (e.g. hunting)
  • public/open access but organised (e.g. hunting)
Comentarios:

In the region, there is some public land, controlled by the state. But there is also some private land. The access to the public land is open but organized. Permission is needed from the government to cut trees, to build a house or to hunt. There are some private hunting areas for which the hunting association has to pay a fee.

6. Impactos y comentarios para concluir

6.1 Impactos in situ demostrados por la Tecnología

Impactos socioeconómicos

Producción

producción animal

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

After planting, grazing should be banned/restricted

producción de madera

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

The natural process of vegetation growth was accelerated through the plantation of pines. There will be more wood in the future (develops only slowly).

diversidad de producto

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Wood, hunting, mushrooms

área de producción

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Less agricultural land available (but the question is also if the land would be used for agriculture since it is quite a remote area)

generación de energía

disminuyó
incrementó

Impactos socioculturales

oportunidades recreativas

disminuyó
mejoró
Comentarios/ especifique:

Forest has a higher aesthetic value than a burnt area or shrubland. In general people are attracted by afforestations, but since this afforestation has been done in a remote area people don’t visit this place more frequently

MST/ conocimiento de la degradación del suelo

disminuyó
mejoró
Comentarios/ especifique:

Local people know about the importance of conservation of the area and like to have a healthy forest which is protected from wildfires.

mitigación de conflicto

empeoró
mejoró

situación de grupos en desventaja social y económica

empeoró
mejoró
Comentarios/ especifique:

The afforestation provided many job opportunities (in the year 1985, today not anymore)

contribution to human well-being

decreased
increased
Comentarios/ especifique:

In the year 1985 the afforestation created jobs for the unemployed. But it seems that in general forest management is not something people want to do, they work in this sector only if there are no other job opportunities. Until today this attitude did not change much. Forest management means a hard job and this kind of work is not well-respected in society.

Impactos ecológicos

Ciclo de agua/ escurrimiento de sedimento

cosecha/ recolección de agua

disminuyó
mejoró

escurrimiento superficial

incrementó
disminuyó

drenaje de agua en exceso

disminuyó
mejoró

nivel freático/ acuífero

disminuyó
recargó

evaporación

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

More moisture is stored in the soil and less water is lost by evaporation (the soil is covered)

Suelo

humedad del suelo

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

More soil moisture because of vegetation cover (soil is not exposed and does therefore not dry out)

cubierta del suelo

disminuyó
mejoró

pérdida de suelo

incrementó
disminuyó

encostramiento/ sellado de suelo

incrementó
disminuyó

ciclo/ recarga de nutrientes

disminuyó
incrementó

materia orgánica debajo del suelo C

disminuyó
incrementó
Biodiversidad: vegetación, animales

biomasa/ sobre suelo C

disminuyó
incrementó

diversidad vegetal

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Today different plant species can be found although only pines (Pinus Halepensis) was planted

diversidad animal

disminuyó
incrementó
Comentarios/ especifique:

There are maybe more animals because of shelter, different vegetation composition, and fodder supply. Hunters also cultivate some fields in this region to attract the game.

control de pestes/ enfermedades

disminuyó
incrementó
Reducción de riesgos de desastres y riesgos climáticos

riesgo de incendio

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Higher fire risk than if there would be agriculture or bare land. Lack of forest management resulted in a high density of the vegetation which increases the risk of fire

velocidad de viento

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Trees reduce the wind velocity compared to shrubland or bare soil

6.2 Impactos fuera del sitio demostrados por la Tecnología

inundaciones río abajo

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

In general, but in this case it is not that important

daño a campos de vecinos

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

In general but in this case it is not that important because in this area there are no cultivations

daños a infraestructura pública / privada

incrementó
disminuyó
Comentarios/ especifique:

Streets are better protected

Reduced amount of sediments in the water ponds for fire extinction

increased
reduced
Comentarios/ especifique:

Less work is required to clean the water ponds

6.3 Exposición y sensibilidad de la Tecnología al cambio climático gradual y a extremos relacionados al clima/ desastres (desde la percepción de los usuarios de tierras)

Cambio climático gradual

Cambio climático gradual
Estación Incremento o reducción ¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
temperatura anual incrementó bien

Extremos (desastres) relacionados al clima

Desastres climatológicos:
¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
tormenta de lluvia local bien
tormenta de viento no se sabe
Desastres climatológicos
¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
sequía no muy bien
Desastres hidrológicos
¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
inundación general (río) no se sabe

Otras consecuencias relacionadas al clima

Otras consecuencias relacionadas al clima
¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
periodo reducido de crecimiento no muy bien
fires no muy bien
Comentarios:

The technology was not modified but it is important to add some notes to the above stated reactions to climatic extremes. If the temperature is decreasing to -15°C the pines are sensitive because they freeze. But they are tolerant against temperature increase always when there is water available (Pinus Hal. is more tolerant to temperature increase than Pinus Pinaster). Afforestations are more sensitive to droughts than natural forests because the afforested trees are not used to these hard conditions. If the pines are mature, they are more tolerant than young pines because their roots are longer and reach deeper into the ground. If there is a drought when pines are still young it can increase the risk of a fire. The pines are also sensitive to hail and snow.

6.4 Análisis costo-beneficio

¿Cómo se comparan los beneficios con los costos de establecimiento (desde la perspectiva de los usuarios de tierra)?
Ingresos a corto plazo:

negativo

Ingresos a largo plazo:

positivo

¿Cómo se comparan los beneficios con los costos de mantenimiento/ recurrentes (desde la perspectiva de los usuarios de tierra)?
Ingresos a corto plazo:

neutral/ balanceado

Ingresos a largo plazo:

neutral/ balanceado

Comentarios:

Short-term returns are negative because the management practice is expensive and until the trees reach a mature state, there are not many returns (in terms of wood and biomass). In the long-term this management practice shows a positive result because compared to bare soil or shrubland it has ecological benefits such as the reduction of soil erosion, and it also provides wood and biomass which could be extracted. Currently there is no management project because the state does not invest money but it would actually be required in order to maintain the healthy state of this forest patch and to control the fire risk. If there is money invested by the state they can do a selective clearing which will result in short-term returns, e.g. wood (but also in the long-term they will be able to extract wood).

6.5 Adopción de la Tecnología

Comentarios:

There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology
In Spain a lot of afforestation trials have been realized in the past but only a few of them succeeded.

6.7 Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades de la Tecnología

Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades desde la perspectiva del usuario de la tierra
There are also economic benefits for local people. The afforestation provided jobs for rural people. Furthermore, Pinus Halepensis seedlings grow faster and show a higher survival rate than other species, therefore the natural process of forest growth is increased which in turn results in the possibility to use the forest after some years again, e.g. extraction of wood/biomass for bioenergy or timber. But unfortunately this is not done frequently because it is expensive to clear the forest (located in a remote area).
Many stakeholders mentioned the positive visual impact. They prefer to have a forest instead of bare soil or shrubland, and it reminds them of how the state of the forest was before the fire. Trees have a higher value for them than shrubs. They supported the fact that the afforestation helped the environment to regenerate.
Compared to the situation after the fire there is a higher biodiversity due to the afforestation.
The afforestation contributed to rural development
Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades desde la perspectiva del compilador o de otra persona de referencia clave
The afforestation allowed the rehabilitation of an area affected by a devastating wildfire. It is an example out of many afforestation trials which succeeded. The success of this Pinus Halepensis afforestation is not only shown by the occurrence of healthy old pines, but also by the growth of young pines and resprouter species such as Quercus which were not planted.
Through the plantation of pines, the soil cover and stability was improved which in turn led to a decrease of soil erosion. The reduction in soil erosion (less transported sediments) also resulted in a decrease of damages of the infrastructure (such as streets or water ponds for fire extinction).

6.8 Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos de la Tecnología y formas de sobreponerse a ellos

Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos desde la perspectiva del usuario de la tierra ¿Cómo sobreponerse a ellas?
The area which was afforested is now not available anymore for agriculture. There is therefore a loss of agricultural land, but it is not sure either whether there would be a farmer using this land since it is located in a remote area. Local hunters are cultivating cereals next to the forest to attract the animals. This is also important for the animals because without these fields, they would probably have to leave this area due to the scarce fodder supply
The area is now less accessible for hunters because of the density of the forest which allows animals to hide themselves In the opinion of the villagers it would be important to promote the relationship between humans and nature and to find a balance between forest use and natural processes. The consciousness of the patrimonial value of the forest should also be promoted.
Some stakeholders criticized the linear planting. This is not like nature “would do it”.
There are many stakeholder who said that it was an error to do so many afforestations with Pinus Halepensis because in many regions nature would have regenerated by itself. It would have been possible to save a lot of money. A plantation causes high costs.
Due to the lack of management and because there is almost no use of the forest by the local population, there is a high amount of shrubs which increases the fire risk and hinders from walking through the forest
Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos desde la perspectiva del compilador o de otra persona de referencia clave ¿Cómo sobreponerse a ellas?
It would be necessary to extract biomass from the forest to decrease the continuity of the trees and shrubs. Due to the lack of forest management (the management activities are expensive and labour-intensive) there is an increased risk of fires. More investments in forest management such as selective forest clearings are required. Managing the forest would not only decrease the risk of fire and the competition between the species but also generate benefits such as timber or biomass for bioenergy production. Furthermore, jobs would be generated. In general, after afforestations, it would be required that people manage the forest. Nowadays, there is only limited use of the forest – in the past people lived of the land, but today this is not the case anymore. E.g. grazing is almost not existing anymore but in fact this would be really important for the reduction of the fire risk.
It is not fully clear whether Pinus Halepensis plantations are a useful tool for restoration and it is also questioned whether it is sustainable to plant only Pinus Halepensis. Monoplantations result in the simplification of the landscape and alterations of habitats. One of the reasons why they used this species is that planting pines is kind of a tradition: it was always used for economic purposes because in earlier times the wood had a higher value. Furthermore, Pinus Halepensis seedlings grow faster and show a higher survival rate than other species, and since the aim of the afforestations was to have forest again in a short period of time, this species seemed to be the most suitable. But often in Pinus Halepensis Monoplantations other species do not grow (which is not the case in the documented afforestation). Research carried out on this topic showed that it would be good to increase the diversity (e.g. with carrasca, sabina, enebros, madroños), to combine the plantation of pines with the plantation of broad-leaved resprouting species (such as holm oak), in order to take advantage of both the fast-growth features of pines and the high resilience of oaks. This also provides higher diversity and landscape heterogeneity
Monoplantations are more vulnerable to perturbations such as forest fires or pests. If there is a high amount of one specific species the spread of a pest is facilitated. Sick or dead trees in turn increase the fire risk. It would be good to increase the diversity (e.g. with carrasca, sabina, enebros, madroños), to combine the plantation of pines with the plantation of broad-leaved resprouting species (such as holm oak), in order to take advantage of both the fast-growth features of pines and the high resilience of oaks.
Additional information: The here documented afforestation was successful, but usually many plantations of Pinus Halepensis failed (low seedling survival rate) Seedling survival can in some cases (has also be questioned) be enhanced through preconditioning, water harvesting techniques (micro-catchments), tree-shelters (protective tubes), fertilisation, application of mulch, using facilitating effects (planting close to a resource island or a nurse plant, to benefit from shade, change in soil properties, retention of soil and nutrients, protection from grazers), perch effect (providing bird perches e.g. dead trees, artificial woody structures, in old fields to accelerate colonisation rates (bird-mediated restoration))

7. Referencias y vínculos

7.1 Métodos/ fuentes de información

  • visitas de campo, encuestas de campo
  • entrevistas con usuarios de tierras
¿Cuándo se compilaron los datos (en el campo)?

01/06/2013

7.2 Vínculos a las publicaciones disponibles

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Fernández-Ondoño, E., Rojo Serrano, L., Jiménez, M. N., Navarro, F. B., Díez, M., Martín, F., … Aguilar, J. (2010). Afforestation improves soil fertility in south-eastern Spain. European Journal of Forest Research, 129(4), 707–717.

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Maestre, F. T., & Cortina, J. (2004). Are Pinus halepensis plantations useful as a restoration tool in semiarid Mediterranean areas? Forest Ecology and Management, 198(1-3), 303–317.

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Pausas, J. G., Blad, C., Valdecantos, A., Seva, P., Fuentes, D., Alloza, A., … Estudios, C. De. (2004). Pines and oaks in the restoration of Mediterranean landscapes of Spain : New perspectives for an old practice – a review, (Vázquez 1998), 209–220.

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Sánchez, J. R., Bonet, a., Bellot, J., & Chirino, E. (2006). Effects of 30-year-old Aleppo pine plantations on runoff, soil erosion, and plant diversity in a semi-arid landscape in south eastern Spain. Catena, 65(1), 19–29.

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Valdecantos, a, Baeza, M. J., & Vallejo, V. R. (2009). Vegetation Management for Promoting Ecosystem Resilience in Fire-Prone Mediterranean Shrublands. Restoration Ecology, 17(3), 414–421.

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