1.2 Контактные данные специалистов и организаций, участвующих в описании и оценке Технологии

Название проекта, содействовавшего документированию/оценке Технологии (если применимо)

Book project: Guidelines to Rangeland Management in Sub-Saharan Africa (Rangeland Management)

1.3 Условия, регламентирующие использование данных, собранных ВОКАТ

Составитель и ответственный(-ые) специалист(-ы) согласны с условиями, регламентирующими использование собранных ВОКАТ данных:

Да

1.4 Декларация по устойчивости описываемой Технологии

Вызывает ли описанная здесь Технология проблемы деградации земель настолько, что ее нельзя назвать природосберегающей?

Нет

Пояснения:

Yes and no, only time will tell here. Grazing principles and management (with partly applied Holistic Managment) of Il Ngwesi Group Ranch are said to be exemplary for group ranches in the area. In evaluation processes since the introduction of the new principles and also in reports, they were rated as "best practice". Land recovery is according to these reports in full swing. However, in the field the picture looks partially different. The land is in large areas (still) heavily degraded. Data suggests that vegetation and soil is in a rather bad condition - many erosion features characterize the land. Nevertheless, according to land users, land coverage has significantly improved since the introduction of the new technologies.

2.1 Краткое описание Технологии

Определение Технологии:

A group ranch belonging to the Masai (traditionally, nomad pastoralists) has applied "Holistic Management" grazing principles. The principles consist of separate, planned grazing in villages during the rains, then “bunching” and moving of all animals in herds during the dry season. Denuded land is recovered by a "Boma” technology: i.e. strategic corralling of animals overnight, and reseeding.

2.2 Подробное описание Технологии

Описание:

On Il Ngwesi Masai Group Ranch, livestock production management is a combination of traditional livestock keeping and holistic grazing management principles which were introduced in 2007. Livestock production at Il Ngwesi is for subsistence and sales - and has very high cultural significance. 80% of the land is used for conservation, where wildlife and their habitat are protected. The vision is to integrate community development and sustainable environmental management. Holistic Management (HM) was originally conceived by Allan Savory (1988), and is promoted by the Laikipia Wildlife Forum. It integrates decision-making, planning, and livestock keeping. On the land, this means bunching of all livestock close together (in order to act as a "plough" and break the soil to allow seeds, nutrients, and water to infiltrate) resulting in better plant growth. By moving the animals together from block to block, HM aims at managing high numbers of livestock while restoring degraded land. Instead of individual livestock-owning families herding and trekking their own animals, consolidated herds are now managed and moved together, and overseen by herders and supervisors. This allows intensive grazing in restricted areas while resting the remaining land - instead of continuous open grazing. However, Holistic Management principles are still a matter of controversy. While advocates of these management principles do not limit herd sizes, opponents see the root cause of degradation exactly in too high stocking rates. Criticism is plentiful and reviews of the method state that there are no peer-reviewed studies that prove that Holistic Management is superior to conventional grazing systems in outcomes (Carter et al. 2014, Briske et al. 2014).The group ranch land consists of a settlement and a conservation area. The conservation area is further subdivided into a small core zone, measuring 500 hectares and a larger buffer zone of 6,000 hectares. Within this buffer zone, pastoralists are permitted to graze livestock during the dry season.Besides these two main grazing areas in their group ranch, they use additional grazing areas outside their territory such as pasture in forests. In one forest - Mukogodo - they have settled officially; in Ngare Ngare and on Mount Kenya, on the other hand, it is more of an informal agreement. In Il Ngwesi, HM principles are very strictly applied in the conservation area; elsewhere only partly or not at all. During the movements to the forest glades and Mount Kenya, HM principles are maintained as far as possible. This documentation describes the combined grazing management system. During the rains, the grazing system is largely by traditional management: animals remain in and around villages managed individually by households. During the dry season, all livestock are bunched together and managed as one herd.During the wet season, grazing at Il Ngwesi Group Ranch is organized by elders within their seven villages. HM principles are only partly applied. During the dry season, once all the grazing land is eaten, livestock are bunched together and managed by a few herders and overseers. The block system rotation starts. To seek new pasture and water, cattle and smallstock are led to forest glades, and then to the Il Ngwesi conservation area. As soon as the forest pasture is gone, they move on to the conservation area. Usually, this movement of livestock to forests and conservation area starts in February; then they return to the villages in April; and then back to the forests and conservation area until the next rains in November. Whilst the livestock are bunched together, large bomas (corrals in Kiswahili) are constructed for overnight enclosure. Bomas are sited on bare land where dung accumulation and crust breaking by hooves helps rehabilitate land. Every year the boma sites are shifted slightly according to a plan. The total area that can be restored per year is almost 1% of the area of Il Ngwesi.

2.3 Фотографии, иллюстрирующие Технологию

2.5 Страна/ регион/ места, где применяется Технология, информация о которых собрана в данной Анкете

2.6 Сколько лет применяется данная Технология

Год начала реализации:

2007

2.7 Внедрение Технологии

Укажите, как именно Технология УЗП была внедрена:

• как часть традиционной системы землепользования (более 50 лет назад)
• через проекты/ внешнее вмешательство

Пояснения (тип проекта и т.д.):

Holistic Management approach by Allan Savory.
In Laikipia, it was introduced by Richard Hartfield, Laikipia Wildlife Forum and funded by Laikipia Wildlife Forum (LWF), Lewa Conservancy and Northern Rangeland Trust (NRT) (approximately 50% of all additional costs of Il Ngwesi since the implementation were covered by funding). Agreement with elders was reached first, then the community was trained.

3.1 Основные цели и задачи реализации Технологии

• повышение производства
• снижение или предотвращение деградации земель, восстановление нарушенных земель
• сохранение экосистем
• сохранение/ повышение биоразнообразия

3.2 Текущий(-ие) тип(-ы) землепользования на территории, где применяется Технология

Пояснения:

Dominant grasses: Eragrostis species, Cynadon species, Hyparrhenia species, Kelenger species. Dominant shrubs: Solyneum inconum, Ipomea hildebranditi, Lyceum europaeum, Barleria acuthodies. Dominant trees: Acacia tortilis, Acacia mellifera, Acacia nilotica, Acacia etbaica, Boscia angustifolia.

Main animal species and products: Cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, camels. Meat and milk production (also blood) and as a bank/ value asset. Mainly subsistence and local production.
Livestock: 4’800 TLU; Stocking rate: 3.3 ha/TLU (calculated with the total affected land by livestock: 157km2)
Pressure on land including wildlife: 3.3 ha/TLU (stays the same, calculated with wildlife biomass density estimated by Georgiadis et al. 2007).
Livestock numbers:
Lower Il Ngwesi: 4000 cattle, 20'000 shoats, 50 donkeys, 100 camels.
Sanga: 700 cattle, 2000 shoats, 20 donkeys.
Mukogodo: 1500 cattle, 5000 shoats, 20 donkeys
Livestock fluctuations (per year): -10% sales, -5% loss due to drought/diseases, -5% slaughtered,
+30% natural breeding, new purchase and deaths are mutually offsetting.
Steers are for fattening on private ranches and during droughts other livestock can be moved to private ranches (up to 3000).
Wildlife: elephant, antelope/ gazelle (like gerenuk, impala, Thomson's gazelle, dik-dik), hares, predators and more.

Number of growing seasons per year: 2
Short rains in November and December. Long rains in April and May. Rains from (October) November to December are usually better in this area. Rainfalls with strong local variations and changing regimes.
Livestock density: 4’800 TLU; Stocking rate: 3.3 ha/TLU. Pressure on land: 3.3 ha/TLU

3.4 Водоснабжение

Обеспеченность водой участков, где реализуется Технология :

• богарные земли

3.5 Категория УЗП, к которой относится Технология

• Кочевое животноводство и пастбищное хозяйство
• Улучшение почвенного/ растительного покрова

3.6 Мероприятия УЗП, выполняемые в рамках Технологии

3.7 Основные проблемы деградации земель, на решение которых направлена Технология

Пояснения:

Across the grasslands and rangelands an increase in bare land and bush has been a clear trend all over Laikipia for many years, both on community-owned lands and private ranches. Major identified ecological problems (partly) caused by livestock production are: bare ground, low contents of soil organic carbon and plant-available nutrients, soil erosion (sealing, crusting, rills and gullies, water flow patterns, sheet erosion, pedestals), poor soil properties, undesirable species, and (increasing) woody and invasive species. However, Il Ngwesi is not affected by the invasive species Opuntia stricta. For more information on rangeland health see Herger (2018). The technology aims at improving vegetation cover of the land and thereby reducing further degradation and restoring degraded land.

3.8 Предотвращение и снижение деградации земель, или восстановление нарушенных земель

Укажите цель Технологии по отношению к деградации земель :

• снижение деградации земель
• восстановление/ реабилитация нарушенных земель

4.1 Технический рисунок, иллюстрирующий Технологию

4.2 Общая информация по необходимым вложениям и стоимости

Уточните, как рассчитывались затраты и вложения:

• на технологическую единицу

Укажите денежные единицы, использованные для подсчета затрат:

• Доллары США

4.3 Мероприятия, необходимые для начала реализации

	Деятельность	Время (сессия)
1.	Training of elders and community by project leaders
2.	Grazing planning for bunched animals (livestock from all households)
3.	Hiring herders, supervisors, watchmen etc

4.4 Вложения и затраты, необходимые для начала реализации

	Опишите затраты	Единица	Количество	Затраты на единицу	Общая стоимость на единицу	% затрат, оплаченных землепользователями
Оплата труда	Costs for establishment unknown

Пояснения:

Trainings were funded by NRT, LWF and Lewa Conservancy. No figures on this.

4.5 Поддержание/ текущее обслуживание

	Деятельность	Сроки/ повторяемость проведения
1.	Herders, supervisors, watchmen etc
2.	Animal treatments (vaccination, spraying, injections)
3.	Planning activites
4.	Boma Management (mainly movement of Bomas)

4.6 Стоимость поддержания/ текущего обслуживания ( в год)

	Опишите затраты	Единица	Количество	Затраты на единицу	Общая стоимость на единицу	% затрат, оплаченных землепользователями
Оплата труда	Herders, watchmen	Person-days	250,0	540,0	135000,0	100,0
Оплата труда	Supervisors	Person-days	3,0	720,0	2160,0	100,0
Оплата труда	Planning activities, management	Person-days	20,0	1500,0	30000,0	100,0
Оплата труда	Livestock-owning families (for wet season, no wages paid, livelihood)	Person-days	8000,0	300,0	2400000,0
Строительные материалы	Boma Movement
Другие	Animals treatments (spraying against ticks)	Per livestock unit	5000,0	5,0	25000,0	100,0
Другие	Injections, vaccine	Per livestock unit	5000,0	3,0	15000,0	100,0
Общая стоимость поддержания Технологии					2607160,0
Общие затраты на поддержание Технологии в долларах США					2607160,0

Если землепользователем оплачено менее 100% затрат, укажите, кем покрывались остальные затраты:

Overall additional costs since introduction of new technology are estimated at 20% higher than before. 50% are covered by project funding (LWF, NRT, Lewa Conservancy).

Пояснения:

Costs per unit are multiplied by days.
According to the interviewed manager, total costs are only USD 18'000 (without herders). However, the listing of all costs results in much higher total costs. Total animal treatment costs for Makurian Group Ranch in comparison are USD 428'000 (labor USD 380'000, animal treatment USD 48'000, without livestock-owning families).
Also, people living in the area (population of 8'000 inhabitants) are involved in livestock keeping and are included here in calcuations as labor (for 3 months, wet season, 10% of total population).
Cost/benefit is currently negative for livestock keeping. Income due to livestock sales is roughly estimated USD 340'000 (price for cattle on average USD 400 per unit, sales around 500 p.a., price for goats and sheep each USD 40 per unit, sales around 2'000 p.a., slaughtered units (for subsistence use) cattle: 50, shoats: 1'000 - detailed figures available Herger 2018).

4.7 Наиболее значимые факторы, влияющие на стоимость затрат

Опишите наиболее значимые факторы, влияющие на стоимость затрат:

- Managing of one big herd, many supervisors needed.
- Movement of bomas.
- Livestock-owning families (although they obviously don't receive any salary): this is simultaneously their livelihood and used for subsistence. But once all their livestock is bunched in a big herd, they lose their nutritional source (milk, blood) and livelihood (sometimes they keep back a few units for this reason).

5.1 Климат

5.2 Рельеф

Укажите, приурочено ли применение Технологии к специфическим условиям:

• не имеет значения

Комментарии и дополнительные сведения по условиям рельефа/ топографии :

Hilly areas (e.g. Sanga village) and flat areas in lower altitude (conservation area).

5.3 Почвы

Если возможно, приложите полное описание почв или укажите доступную информацию, например тип почв, рH/ кислотность почв, ёмкость катионного обмена, содержание азота, содержание солей и т.д.

Red and brown sandy soils. Black cotton soil. Luvisol, Regosol, Vertisol.
SOC 1.1-1.4 %
pH: 6.3
Clay: 12%
Silt: 53%
Sand: 35%
More information in Herger (2018).

5.4 Доступность и качество воды

Является ли солёность воды проблемой?

Нет

Происходят ли периодические затопления территории?

Нет

Комментарии и дополнительная информация по качеству и количеству воды:

Few springs, Ngare Ndare river, no boreholes. Source is Mount Kenya.

5.5 Биоразнообразие

Комментарии и дополнительная информация по биоразнообразию:

Grassed acacia bushland. Bare land up to 70% during the dry season. Loss of (native) vegetation. Invasive species coming in. Dominant grasses: Eragrostis species, Cynadon species, Hyparrhenia species, Kelenger species. Dominant shrubs: Solyneum inconum, Ipomea hildebranditi, Lyceum europaeum, Barleria acuthodies. Dominant trees: Acacia tortilis, Acacia mellifera, Acacia nilotica, Acacia etbaica, Boscia angustifolia. Detailed list of all species (also wildlife) available (see Herger 2018).

5.6 Характеристика землепользователей, применяющих Технологию

Укажите другие важные характеристики землепользователей:

Masai people. 8'000 Masai living in Il Ngwesi. Traditional lifestyle. Livestock with very high cultural value. About 10% subsistence use, 90% is sold for local and national markets (mainly local).
Very little agriculture; tourism (award-winning eco-lodge in conservation area); people start to diversify. Schooling of children has a high importance today (e.g. smallstock is sold for school fees). Children and young warriors are traditionally herders, however, it is shifting towards hiring herders and sending children to school.
Have been historically "squeezed" from all sides into smaller areas for livestock keeping. Future of pastoralism is in question.

5.7 Средняя площадь земель, используемых землепользователями с применением Технологии

5.8 Собственность на землю, права на земле- и водопользование

Землевладелец:

• общинная/ поселковая

Право землепользования:

• общинное (контролируемое)

Право водопользования:

• неограниченное (неконтролируемое)

5.9 Доступ к базовым услугам и инфраструктуре

6.1 Влияние Технологии УЗП в пределах территории ее применения

Социально-экономическое воздействие

Продуктивность

Доступность и качество воды

Доходы и затраты

Социальное и культурное воздействие

Экологическое воздействие

Водный цикл/ поверхностный сток

Почвы

Биоразнообразие: растительность, животный мир

Климат и снижение риска стихийных бедствий

6.2 Влияние Технологии за пределами территории ее применения

Укажите оценку внешних воздействий (измерений) :

All listed impacts are as perceived by land users according to Patrick Leseri, Conservation Manager. In his opinion, vegetation cover has thanks to the new technologies improved. Planning activities significantly increased and therefore also socio-economic and ecological conditions improved. Results from a rangeland health assessment (only ecological conditions) show on the other hand partly heavily degraded ecological conditions (poor soil and vegetation, erosions features, inability of producing annual grasses after rains etc) (Herger 2018). Land users and experts are aware that the ecological conditions of this Group Ranch are still far from optimal, but do see good progress and exemplary management as well as slightly better conditions than on other Group Ranches.

6.3 Подверженность и чувствительность Технологии УЗП к постепенным изменениям климата и экстремальным погодным явлениям/ стихийным бедствиям, связанным с изменением климата (в понимании землепользователей)

Постепенное изменение климата

Постепенное изменение климата

	Сезон	увеличение или уменьшение	Насколько успешно Технология справляется с этим?
другие постепенные изменения климата	Greater variation of seasonal rainfall, higher intensity of rainfall events, change in rainfall regimes in general (see Schmocker 2013 and Imfeld 2016).	увеличилось	хорошо

Экстремальные явления, связанные с изменением климата (стихийные бедствия)

Стихийные бедствия климатического характера

	Насколько успешно Технология справляется с этим?
сильная жара	хорошо

Пояснения:

Improved rangeland health, better internal organization, and cooperations make them less vulnerable to climate change impacts.

6.4 Анализ эффективности затрат

Насколько получаемый результат сопоставим с первоначальными вложениями (с точки зрения землепользователей)?

Насколько получаемый результат сопоставим с текущими расходами по поддержанию технологии (с точки зрения землепользователей)?

6.5 Внедрение Технологии

• 11-50%

Если возможно, дайте количественную характеристику (число домохозяйств и/или площадь применения):

50%

Среди применяющих Технологию землепользователей, какова доля лиц, применяющих её по собственной инициативе, т.е. без какого-либо материального стимулирования со стороны?

• 0-10%

6.6 Адаптация

Была ли Технология УЗП изменена в недавнее время с целью адаптации к меняющимся условиям среды?

Да

Если да, укажите, по отношению к каким именно изменяющимся условиям среды произведена адаптация?

• изменения климата/ экстремальные погодные явления

Укажите, что именно изменилось в Технологии (дизайн, используемые материалы или виды растений/животных и т.д.):

Masai people have changed their livestock composition towards owning more smallstock (goats and sheep) than cattle. Goats are tolerant of drought, and as browsers, they don't need any grass. Also, they can be turned into money much quicker than a cow in times of need and because of their more rapid reproductive cycle. They can also recover number more quickly after livestock losses through drought.

6.7 Сильные стороны/ преимущества/ возможности Технологии

Сильные стороны/ преимущества/ возможности по мнению землепользователей
Proper utilisation of pasture – controlled usage/grazing.
Land recovery (more cover, more water, more fodder, less erosion).
Carrying capacity increased.
Traditional knowledge is still used.
More dialogue in community: brings everyone in the community together – they have a common point – everyone has the same interest.
Improving breeds is easier (because all are bunched together).
Easy vaccination of all livestock at once.
Approving cultural lifestyle of Masai: the higher the livestock numbers – the better for the land.
Better for disadvantaged community members: for instance for those who could not afford to move their livestock to Mt Kenya on their own before.

Сильные стороны/ преимущества/ возможности по мнению составителя или других ключевых специалистов

The listed advantages from Patrick Leseri, the land user, are for the most part shared share with the compiler's view. Improved planning of livestock production with planned grazing and long resting periods, improved dialogue in the community, and the named advantages of a big herd (like easy vaccination etc) are important advantages. Regarding Holistic Management (HM) principles, there remains uncertainty about land recovery. On the one hand, it is generally questionable to state as in HM: “the more animals the better” (as long as they are managed properly they can even recover degraded land), which seems dangerous in areas with such high livestock numbers and cultural value of livestock keeping - without scientific proof of the principles in similar ecological conditions. We have witnessed rather poor condition of the land, and the much-vaunted good land was difficult to find. Favourable descriptions might also be related to funding of the project. Results from a rangeland health assessment show (partly) heavily degraded ecological conditions (bare ground, poor soil and vegetation, erosion features, partly an inability of producing perennial and annual grasses after rains etc) (see Herger 2018). However, an evaluation of change over time is impossible to assess. Further monitoring is necessary. Land users and experts are aware that the ecological conditions of this Group Ranch are still far from optimal, but do see good progress and exemplary management as well as slightly better conditions than on other Group Ranches. However, the efforts towards good management and a sense of community was not difficult to notice.

6.8 Слабые стороны/ недостатки/ риски Технологии и пути их преодоления

Слабые стороны/ недостатки/ риски по мнению землепользователей	Возможные пути их преодоления/снижения?
Higher costs. Above 20% more than normal costs. Northern Rangeland Trust (NRT), Laikipia Wildlife Forum and Lewa conservancy as main funders for applying holisitc management principles. Since 2007, they covered about 50% of all costs..
More labour intensive. 20-30% above normal (supervision, watchmen, moving big bomas).
Challenge to bring people together (and their livestock) and agree on a joint management.
Some families still prefer to manage their livestock on their own and make their own decisions. There are no individual decisions anymore: principles apply to everyone.
Breeding can also be a problem – those with good genetic material (better livestock) may lose and those with poor may win by mixing.
Conflicts among animals; bulls fight a lot. No separation of heifers, cows, steers and bulls.
Management of high numbers of big herds is a challenge.
Diseases are easily transmitted.
Once livestock is collected to big herds, individual families lose their nutritional basis (milk, blood). However, some also keep a few livestock units back.
Sometimes trees are cut for bomas.

7.1 Методы сбора/ источники информации

7.2 Ссылки на опубликованные материалы

Название, автор, год публикации, ISBN:

Herger, M.B. (2018). Environmental Impacts of Red Meat Production. MSc Thesis. University of Bern.

Где опубликовано? Стоимость?

University of Bern

Название, автор, год публикации, ISBN:

Modeling Seasonal and Annual Precipitation using long-term Climate Records and Topography. Master’s Thesis. Noemi Imfeld (2016).

Где опубликовано? Стоимость?

University of Bern

Название, автор, год публикации, ISBN:

Savory, A (1988). Holistic Resource Management. Gilmour Publishing, Harare, Zimbabwe

Где опубликовано? Стоимость?

Online

Название, автор, год публикации, ISBN:

•Carter, J., Jones, A., O’Brien, M., Ratner, J., Wuerthner, G. (2014). Holistic Management: Misinformation on the Science of Grazed Ecosystems.

Где опубликовано? Стоимость?

International Journal of Biodiversity.

Название, автор, год публикации, ISBN:

•Briske, D.D., Ash, A.J., Derner, J.D., Huntsinger, L. (2014). Commentary: A critical assessment of the policy endorsement for holistic management. Agricultural Systems 125:50-53.