1.2 参与该技术评估和文件编制的资源人员和机构的联系方式

有助于对技术进行记录/评估的机构名称（如相关）

EEZA-CSIC (EEZA-CSIC) - 西班牙

1.3 关于使用通过WOCAT记录的数据的条件

（现场）数据是什么时候汇编的？:

05/05/2011

编制者和关键资源人员接受有关使用通过WOCAT记录数据的条件。:

是

2.1 技术简介

技术定义:

Organic mulching to protect against rain-splash, sheet wash and rill formation, reduce evaporation losses and weed growth.

2.2 技术的详细说明

说明:

Organic mulch is applied in Almond fields to provide a permanent surface cover that protects the soil against soil erosion, reduces evaporation and limits the growth of weeds. This makes that less ploughing is needed under Almond trees that are normally ploughed 3-5 times per year if no mulch cover is present. The material used for mulching can be diverse. Most feasible are straw or bark and wood chips from pruning residues from almonds and forest species (mostly pines). Alternatively, alpha-grass can be used as mulch. Mulch can best be applied late spring or early summer in order to maintain soil humidity of spring rainfall. Mulch should come mixed and homogenised. It is spread around trees by a mechanical spade or by the arm of a caterpillar. A layer of maximum 3-5 cm of mulch should be applied for economical reasons.

Purpose of the Technology: The ultimate goal of organic mulching under almond trees is to maintain soil water through a reduced evaporation and reduce soil loss by erosion. A mulch covers reduces soil erosion by 1) reducing raindrop impact, 2) increasing water infiltration, 3) increasing surface storage, 4) decreasing runoff velocity, 5) improving soil structure and porosity, and 6) improving the biological activity in the soil. Mulching prevents off-site effects of erosion like flooding, damage to infrastructure and siltation of water reservoirs, while maintaining or slightly increasing crop productivity. The mulch results in a higher soil roughness, a better infiltration of water into the soil, and so also in a reduced runoff. The mulch also has a favorable effect on soil quality since the organic material of the mulch will slowly decompose and provide nutrients to the soil. The decomposing part of the organic mulch will increase aggregation and soil structure through the production of organic compounds (e.g. humic acids). The reduced necessity for ploughing of the Almond fields will result in less fuel use and labour as well as reduced emission of CO2. In addition, the mulch cover prevents weeds to grow and so less competition from weeds will occur and less herbicides are needed.

Establishment / maintenance activities and inputs: The establishment of mulching depends on the material used for mulching. Given its availability, the easiest is the use of pruning residue from Almond trees. Almonds are pruned in autumn, and residue can be chopped and applied directly or stored in the field until early spring. Residues are chopped and spread around the tree stem and if enough material is available between tree stems. Alternatively, and depending on availability, pruning residue of pine trees or alpha-grass can be used. Pine tree residue should come from nearby forest stands and need to be chopped just like the almond pruning residue in spring. Litter from the forest floor should not be used as this will cause damage to the forest. Alpha-grass is very common in the region and should be harvested in winter in the fields surrounding the cultivated area without destroying the plant allowing it to regenerate. The alpha-grass does not need to be chopped and can be put around the tree stem of the almond trees.

Natural / human environment: The technology is feasible for soils of shallow to medium depth (between 20-60 cm), and with gentle to moderate slope gradients (2 - 8%). The climate is semi-arid with a mean annual rainfall around 300 mm. Droughts, centred in summer commonly last for more than 4-5 months. Annual potential evapotranspiration rates larger than 1000 mm are common. The production system is highly mechanised and market oriented but depends strongly on agricultural subsidies. All cropland is privately owned.

2.3 技术照片

2.5 已应用该技术的、本评估所涵盖的国家/地区/地点

2.6 实施日期

如果不知道确切的年份，请说明大概的日期:

• 10-50年前

2.7 技术介绍

详细说明该技术是如何引入的:

• 在实验/研究期间

注释（项目类型等）:

Mulching is a well-known technique. However, until now not widely applied under semi-arid conditions without irrigation. With irrigation, plastic mulch is widely applied.

3.2 应用该技术的当前土地利用类型

注释:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): A lack of water availability seriously limits the production potential of the soil and results in a low vegetation/crop cover. The relatively high soil erosion rates cause various off-site related problems (i.e. flooding, reservoir siltation) and on-site problems (i.e. gully formation and loss of soil depth).

Major land use problems (land users’ perception): Lack of water for irrigation of crops limiting the crop types that can be planted as well as the crop yield of dryland farming.

Livestock is grazing on crop residues

3.3 有关土地利用的更多信息

其它（比如洪水后）:

• all three

注释:

Water supply: rainfed, mixed rainfed - irrigated

每年的生长季节数:

• 1

具体说明:

Longest growing period in days: 220Longest growing period from month to month: November to June

3.5 技术传播

具体说明该技术的分布:

• 均匀地分布在一个区域

如果该技术均匀地分布在一个区域上，请注明覆盖的大致区域。:

• < 0.1 平方千米（10 公顷）

注释:

No examples are known of organic mulching that are applied in the area.

3.6 包含该技术的可持续土地管理措施

注释:

Main measures: agronomic measures

Type of agronomic measures: mulching

3.7 该技术强调的主要土地退化类型

注释:

Main type of degradation addressed: Wt: loss of topsoil / surface erosion, Pk: sealing and crusting, Ha: aridification

Secondary types of degradation addressed: Wo: offsite degradation effects

Main causes of degradation: crop management (annual, perennial, tree/shrub) (Almond fields often have a very low surface cover by vegetation during long periods of the year, due to frequent ploughing, leaving the soil unprotected against raindrop impact and rill or gully forma), disturbance of water cycle (infiltration / runoff) (Reduced infiltration capacity causing runoff and soil erosion), poverty / wealth (Alternative and more profitable labour sources are a permanent risk of land abandonment that can lead to degradation.)

Secondary causes of degradation: Heavy / extreme rainfall (intensity/amounts) (High intensity erosive rainfall is common), droughts (Dry periods and dry years require higher water availability)

3.8 防止、减少或恢复土地退化

具体数量名该技术与土地退化有关的目标:

• 防止土地退化
• 减少土地退化

注释:

Main goals: prevention of land degradation, mitigation / reduction of land degradation

4.1 该技术的技术图纸

4.2 技术规范/技术图纸说明

Photo of how the mulch should be divided under the tree stems. If enough material is available, a continuous cover without bare surfaces between trees is recommended.

Technical knowledge required for field staff / advisors: moderate (Knowledge on the type of material used for mulch is essential)

Technical knowledge required for land users: low (The application in the field is simple)

Main technical functions: control of raindrop splash, control of dispersed runoff: retain / trap, control of dispersed runoff: impede / retard, control of concentrated runoff: retain / trap, control of concentrated runoff: impede / retard, improvement of ground cover, increase / maintain water stored in soil

Secondary technical functions: increase of surface roughness, improvement of surface structure (crusting, sealing), increase in organic matter

Mulching
Material/ species: organic material (almond pruning, pine chips, alpha-grass)
Quantity/ density: max 3-5 cm

4.4 技术建立活动

	活动	措施类型	时间
1.	animal traction	管理

4.5 技术建立所需要的费用和投入

	对投入进行具体说明	单位	数量	单位成本	每项投入的总成本	土地使用者承担的成本%
设备	animal traction	hectare	1.0	238.0	238.0	100.0
技术建立所需总成本					238.0

注释:

Duration of establishment phase: 12 month(s)

4.6 维护/经常性活动

	活动	措施类型	时间/频率
1.	Cut alpha-grass (optional)	农业学的	winter
2.	apply mulch of alpha-grass, almond and pine tree pruning residue	农业学的	early spring or autumn after almond pruning

4.7 维护/经常性活动所需要的费用和投入（每年）

	对投入进行具体说明	单位	数量	单位成本	每项投入的总成本	土地使用者承担的成本%
劳动力	labour emdium	hectare	1.0	421.0	421.0	100.0
设备	machine use	hectare	1.0	44.0	44.0	100.0
植物材料	mulch of chopped pine trees	hectare	1.0	650.0	650.0	100.0
技术维护所需总成本					1115.0

注释:

Machinery/ tools: Tractor and chopper to chop the almond pruning residue.

The original price of the chopper is estimated at $4761. In calculations it is assumed that the chopper is shared between at least two farmers, and with an average farm size of 10 ha, which gives a price of $238/ha establishment costs. Calculations include the cutting of alpha-grass to apply this as mulch in addition to the chopped almond and pine tree residue. Excluding the alpha-grass as a mulch reduces the total maintenance cost to 650. Leaving out also the chopped pine tree residue and using only the chopped almond pruning residue reduces maintenance costs to $44. The costs were indicated assuming a distance of 7 meter between almond trees and a mulch cover around each tree of 3*3 meters. Prices are for spring 2008.

4.8 影响成本的最重要因素

描述影响成本的最决定性因素:

Labour for cutting alpha grass, and the price of the mulch are most determining factors of the costs. Almond prunings are free of charge (except for costs to chop them), but will not provide enough mulch. Chopped Pine pruning or straw mulch are relatively expensive.

5.1 气候

5.2 地形

5.3 土壤

5.4 水资源可用性和质量

5.5 生物多样性

5.6 应用该技术的土地使用者的特征

说明土地使用者的其他有关特征:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users

Difference in the involvement of women and men: Traditionally most agriculture is done by men in this region.

Population density: 10-50 persons/km2

Annual population growth: < 0.5%

15% of the land users are rich and own 20% of the land.
80% of the land users are average wealthy and own 75% of the land.
5% of the land users are poor and own 5% of the land.

Off-farm income specification: There is no difference in the ones who apply the technology and those who don’t. Most farmers do have an off-farm income for example from hunting, work in a factory, or office.

5.7 应用该技术的土地使用者拥有或租用的平均土地面积

5.8 土地所有权、土地使用权和水使用权

土地所有权:

• 州
• 个人，有命名

土地使用权:

• 社区（有组织）
• 个人

用水权:

• 社区（有组织）
• 个人

注释:

Most land is privately owned. Some shrubland or forest is state property. Water use is organised by permits to water extraction from aquifers on individual basis. Water rights are provided and controlled by the Water authority of the Segura river basin (CHS).

5.9 进入服务和基础设施的通道

6.1 该技术的现场影响

社会经济效应

生产

水资源可用性和质量

收入和成本

社会文化影响

生态影响

水循环/径流

土壤

生物多样性:植被、动物

减少气候和灾害风险

6.2 该技术的场外影响已经显现

6.3 技术对渐变气候以及与气候相关的极端情况/灾害的暴露和敏感性（土地使用者认为的极端情况/灾害）

渐变气候

渐变气候

	季节	气候变化/极端天气的类型	该技术是如何应对的？
年温度		增加	好

气候有关的极端情况（灾害）

气象灾害

	该技术是如何应对的？
局地暴雨	好
局地风暴	好

气候灾害

	该技术是如何应对的？
干旱	好

水文灾害

	该技术是如何应对的？
比较和缓的（河道）洪水	不好

其他气候相关的后果

其他气候相关的后果

	该技术是如何应对的？
缩短生长期	好

6.4 成本效益分析

技术收益与技术建立成本相比如何（从土地使用者的角度看）？

技术收益与技术维护成本/经常性成本相比如何（从土地使用者的角度看）？

注释:

Mulch is relatively expensive and so implies an additional cost.

6.5 技术采用

注释:

There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology

Comments on adoption trend: There is not so much awareness, and most farmers are afraid of possible costs of mulching and don’t count on increased crop yield.

6.7 该技术的优点/长处/机会

土地使用者眼中的长处/优势/机会
A good surface cover throughout the year provides good protection against erosion and helps reducing number of tillage operations and expenses How can they be sustained / enhanced? no suggestions

编制者或其他关键资源人员认为的长处/优势/机会
The main advantage is that a good surface cover is obtained below almonds that traditionally are characterised by a very poor surface cover during the whole year. The mulch will reduce evaporation and prevent erosion to take place. How can they be sustained / enhanced? Cheapest type of mulch should be identified (alpha grass, chopped pruning residues, …).

6.8 技术的弱点/缺点/风险及其克服方法

土地使用者认为的弱点/缺点/风险	如何克服它们？
The price of the mulch	Look for alternative low cost materials

编制者或其他关键资源人员认为的弱点/缺点/风险	如何克服它们？
The price of the mulch and/or the price of carrying it to the field	Look for alternative low cost materials, the nearest to the plots as possible.
Once the mulch in situ, any tillage operation would incorporate it to the soil, reducing part of its initial benefit; if the mulch is green (alpha grass) it would depress soil N levels upon decomposition, though it would increase SOM in the medium-long term	Avoid tillage in mulched areas

7.2 参考可用出版物

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Smets, T., Poesen, J. and Knapen, A., 2008. Spatial scale effects on the effectiveness of organic mulches in reducing soil erosion by water. Earth-Science Reviews, 89(1-2): 1-12.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Verdu and Mas 2007. Mulching as an alternative technique for weed management in mandarin orchard tree rows. AGRONOMY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. 27(4): 367-375

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

http://www.isahispana.com/

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Mellouli, H.J., van Wesemael, B., Poesen, J. and Hartmann, R., 2000. Evaporation losses from bare soils as influenced by cultivation techniques in semi-arid regions. Agricultural Water Management, 42(3): 355-369.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet