1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)

OPtimal strategies to retAIN and re-use water and nutrients in small agricultural catchments across different soil-climatic regions in Europe (OPTAIN)

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

Yes

1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology

Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?

No

1.5 Reference to Questionnaire(s) on SLM Approaches (documented using WOCAT)

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

Afforestation is planting trees on previously non-forested land. Trees hold the soil and reduce runoff, and thus prevent erosion of the most fertile layers. It is an effective way to rehabilitate degraded lands, being a nature-based solution which addresses flood and soil erosion impacts.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

Afforestation is planting trees on previously non-forested land. Trees hold the soil and reduce runoff, and thus prevent erosion of the most fertile layers. It is an effective way to rehabilitate degraded lands, being a nature-based solution which addresses floods and soil erosion. As vegetation cover plays a crucial role in erosion and runoff rates, afforestation is considered among the best options for soil conservation. Water-related forest ecosystem services include the provision, filtration and regulation of water, along with stream ecosystem support and water-related hazard control, for example soil protection from runoff and erosion. In this context, forest management practices that involve vegetation cover modifications may have a substantial impact on the provision of water-related ecosystem services. Moreover, forest ecosystem interactions with water and energy cycles have been highlighted as the foundations for carbon storage, water resources distribution and terrestrial temperature balancing. Forest management may thus play a key role in meeting climate change mitigation goals as well (Rodrigues et al. 2020).
Afforestation is recommended in areas affected by severe erosion, especially where the slope exceeds 17% and deep gully erosion occurs. This can be a whole parcel or only a part of it. Planting mixed forest consisting of indigenous tree species is the most advantageous.

The main steps in planting/ maintaining trees are as follows:
•Site preparation: considerations include the most effective and cost-efficient methods; soil type, existing vegetation, time and financial constraints.
•Planting: machine-planting or hand-planting.
•Follow-up: monitoring survival, continuing control of competing vegetation, providing protection from animal damage, and monitoring for disease and insects.
•Harvesting/thinning: removing individual trees to reduce the woodland density. Through removing poorer quality trees, the stronger thrive.
Although the long-term environmental benefits of afforestation are significant, farmers generally do not like participating in afforestation programmes because it means a significant loss of income in the short/mid-term (even with the available subsidies/agricultural support).

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.4 Videos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

2.6 Date of implementation

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:

• 10-50 years ago

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:

• through land users' innovation
• through projects/ external interventions

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

• reduce, prevent, restore land degradation
• protect a watershed/ downstream areas – in combination with other Technologies
• preserve/ improve biodiversity
• adapt to climate change/ extremes and its impacts

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

Land use mixed within the same land unit:

No

3.3 Has land use changed due to the implementation of the Technology?

Has land use changed due to the implementation of the Technology?

• Yes (Please fill out the questions below with regard to the land use before implementation of the Technology)

Land use mixed within the same land unit:

No

3.4 Water supply

Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:

• rainfed

3.5 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

• forest plantation management
• improved ground/ vegetation cover
• surface water management (spring, river, lakes, sea)

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:

• prevent land degradation
• reduce land degradation

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

4.2 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

Specify how costs and inputs were calculated:

• per Technology area

Specify currency used for cost calculations:

• USD

4.3 Establishment activities

	Activity	Timing (season)
1.	approval process (planning and obtaining permit)	any season
2.	soil preparation	autumn
3.	planting	autumn
4.	wild fence construction	autumn

4.4 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Labour	soil preparation	person day	2.0	50.0	100.0	100.0
Labour	planting (4000 seedlings on 1 hectare)	person day	3.0	50.0	150.0	100.0
Labour	wild fence construction	person day	4.0	50.0	200.0	100.0
Equipment	soil preparation	hiring cost/day	1.0	400.0	400.0	100.0
Equipment	planting	hiring cost/day	1.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Equipment	wild fence construction	hiring cost/day	2.0	100.0	200.0	100.0
Plant material	seedlings	piece	4000.0	0.1	400.0	100.0
Construction material	wild fence raw material	meter	400.0	2.5	1000.0	100.0
Other	approval process (planning and obtaining permit)	per case	1.0	400.0	400.0	100.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology					2950.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology in USD					2950.0

Comments:

Subsidies are available for the establisment cost (~2000$/ha)

4.5 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

	Activity	Timing/ frequency
1.	Tillage/mechanical weeding	yearly

4.6 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Labour	Tillage/mechanical weeding	person day	1.0	50.0	50.0	100.0
Equipment	Tillage/mechanical weeding- machine hiring cost	hiring cost/day	1.0	300.0	300.0	100.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology					350.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology in USD					350.0

Comments:

Financial supports are available for the maintanence cost of the forest and for the loss of farm income (in the case of land use change from cropland to forest)

4.7 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

tree species, existing vegetation, soil type

5.1 Climate

5.2 Topography

Indicate if the Technology is specifically applied in:

• not relevant

5.3 Soils

5.4 Water availability and quality

Is water salinity a problem?

No

Is flooding of the area occurring?

Yes

5.5 Biodiversity

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

5.7 Average area of land used by land users applying the Technology

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:

• company

Land use rights:

• leased
• individual

Water use rights:

• communal (organized)

Are land use rights based on a traditional legal system?

Yes

5.9 Access to services and infrastructure

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

Income and costs

Ecological impacts

Water cycle/ runoff

Soil

Biodiversity: vegetation, animals

Climate and disaster risk reduction

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change

	Season	increase or decrease	How does the Technology cope with it?
annual temperature		increase	well
seasonal temperature	summer	increase	moderately
seasonal rainfall	summer	decrease	moderately

Climate-related extremes (disasters)

Meteorological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
local rainstorm	well
local windstorm	moderately

Climatological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
heatwave	moderately
extreme winter conditions	well
drought	moderately
forest fire	not well at all

Hydrological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
landslide	moderately

Biological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
insect/ worm infestation	moderately

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

• 1-10%

Of all those who have adopted the Technology, how many did so spontaneously, i.e. without receiving any material incentives/ payments?

• 0-10%

6.6 Adaptation

Has the Technology been modified recently to adapt to changing conditions?

No

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the land user’s view
Reduce soil erosion

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Reduce carbon emission
Reduce soil erosion and groundwater pollution
Improves microclimate

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the land user’s view	How can they be overcome?
Loss of crop yield, loss of income
The appearance of wild animals in agricultural area improves the risk of crop damage on the surrounding croplands	Building fences

7.1 Methods/ sources of information

7.2 References to available publications

Title, author, year, ISBN:

Special Issue "Afforestation and Reforestation: Drivers, Dynamics, and Impacts" in Forests (ISSN 1999-4907).

Available from where? Costs?

https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests/special_issues/afforestation_reforestation

Title, author, year, ISBN:

Rodrigues, A.R., Botequim, B., Tavares, C. et al. Addressing soil protection concerns in forest ecosystem management under climate change. For. Ecosyst. 7, 34 (2020)

Available from where? Costs?

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-020-00247-y

7.3 Links to relevant online information

Title/ description:

European NWRM platform

URL:

nwrm.eu

Title/ description:

Creating a forest: A step by step guiding

URL:

https://erc.cals.wisc.edu/woodlandinfo

7.4 General comments

-