1.2 Detalles de contacto de las personas de referencia e instituciones involucradas en la evaluación y la documentación de la Tecnología

Nombre de la(s) institución(es) que facilitaron la documentación/ evaluación de la Tecnología (si fuera relevante)

EEZA-CSIC (EEZA-CSIC) - España

1.3 Condiciones referidas al uso de datos documentados mediante WOCAT

El compilador y la/s persona(s) de referencia claves aceptan las condiciones acerca del uso de los datos documentados mediante WOCAT:

Sí

1.5 Referencia al (los) Cuestionario(s) de Enfoques MST (documentados usando WOCAT)

2.1 Breve descripción de la Tecnología

Definición de la Tecnología:

Organic mulching to protect against rain-splash, sheet wash and rill formation, reduce evaporation losses and weed growth.

2.2 Descripción detallada de la Tecnología

Descripción:

Organic mulch is applied in Almond fields to provide a permanent surface cover that protects the soil against soil erosion, reduces evaporation and limits the growth of weeds. This makes that less ploughing is needed under Almond trees that are normally ploughed 3-5 times per year if no mulch cover is present. The material used for mulching can be diverse. Most feasible are straw or bark and wood chips from pruning residues from almonds and forest species (mostly pines). Alternatively, alpha-grass can be used as mulch. Mulch can best be applied late spring or early summer in order to maintain soil humidity of spring rainfall. Mulch should come mixed and homogenised. It is spread around trees by a mechanical spade or by the arm of a caterpillar. A layer of maximum 3-5 cm of mulch should be applied for economical reasons.

Purpose of the Technology: The ultimate goal of organic mulching under almond trees is to maintain soil water through a reduced evaporation and reduce soil loss by erosion. A mulch covers reduces soil erosion by 1) reducing raindrop impact, 2) increasing water infiltration, 3) increasing surface storage, 4) decreasing runoff velocity, 5) improving soil structure and porosity, and 6) improving the biological activity in the soil. Mulching prevents off-site effects of erosion like flooding, damage to infrastructure and siltation of water reservoirs, while maintaining or slightly increasing crop productivity. The mulch results in a higher soil roughness, a better infiltration of water into the soil, and so also in a reduced runoff. The mulch also has a favorable effect on soil quality since the organic material of the mulch will slowly decompose and provide nutrients to the soil. The decomposing part of the organic mulch will increase aggregation and soil structure through the production of organic compounds (e.g. humic acids). The reduced necessity for ploughing of the Almond fields will result in less fuel use and labour as well as reduced emission of CO2. In addition, the mulch cover prevents weeds to grow and so less competition from weeds will occur and less herbicides are needed.

Establishment / maintenance activities and inputs: The establishment of mulching depends on the material used for mulching. Given its availability, the easiest is the use of pruning residue from Almond trees. Almonds are pruned in autumn, and residue can be chopped and applied directly or stored in the field until early spring. Residues are chopped and spread around the tree stem and if enough material is available between tree stems. Alternatively, and depending on availability, pruning residue of pine trees or alpha-grass can be used. Pine tree residue should come from nearby forest stands and need to be chopped just like the almond pruning residue in spring. Litter from the forest floor should not be used as this will cause damage to the forest. Alpha-grass is very common in the region and should be harvested in winter in the fields surrounding the cultivated area without destroying the plant allowing it to regenerate. The alpha-grass does not need to be chopped and can be put around the tree stem of the almond trees.

Natural / human environment: The technology is feasible for soils of shallow to medium depth (between 20-60 cm), and with gentle to moderate slope gradients (2 - 8%). The climate is semi-arid with a mean annual rainfall around 300 mm. Droughts, centred in summer commonly last for more than 4-5 months. Annual potential evapotranspiration rates larger than 1000 mm are common. The production system is highly mechanised and market oriented but depends strongly on agricultural subsidies. All cropland is privately owned.

2.3 Fotografías de la Tecnología

2.5 País/ región/ lugares donde la Tecnología fue aplicada y que se hallan comprendidos por esta evaluación

2.6 Fecha de la implementación

Si no se conoce el año preciso, indique la fecha aproximada:

• 10-50 años atrás

2.7 Introducción de la Tecnología

Especifique cómo se introdujo la Tecnología:

• durante experimentos/ investigación

Comentarios (tipo de proyecto, etc.):

Mulching is a well-known technique. However, until now not widely applied under semi-arid conditions without irrigation. With irrigation, plastic mulch is widely applied.

3.2 Tipo(s) actuales de uso de la tierra donde se aplica la Tecnología

Mezcla de tipos de uso de tierras dentro de la misma unidad de tierras: :

Sí

Especifique el uso combinado de tierras (cultivos/ pastoreo/ árboles):

• Agroforestería

Comentarios:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): A lack of water availability seriously limits the production potential of the soil and results in a low vegetation/crop cover. The relatively high soil erosion rates cause various off-site related problems (i.e. flooding, reservoir siltation) and on-site problems (i.e. gully formation and loss of soil depth).

Major land use problems (land users’ perception): Lack of water for irrigation of crops limiting the crop types that can be planted as well as the crop yield of dryland farming.

Livestock is grazing on crop residues

3.4 Provisión de agua

otra (ej. post-inundación):

• all three

Comentarios:

Water supply: rainfed, mixed rainfed - irrigated

3.6 Medidas MST que componen la Tecnología

Comentarios:

Main measures: agronomic measures

Type of agronomic measures: mulching

3.7 Principales tipos de degradación del suelo encarados con la Tecnología

Comentarios:

Main type of degradation addressed: Wt: loss of topsoil / surface erosion, Pk: sealing and crusting, Ha: aridification

Secondary types of degradation addressed: Wo: offsite degradation effects

Main causes of degradation: crop management (annual, perennial, tree/shrub) (Almond fields often have a very low surface cover by vegetation during long periods of the year, due to frequent ploughing, leaving the soil unprotected against raindrop impact and rill or gully forma), disturbance of water cycle (infiltration / runoff) (Reduced infiltration capacity causing runoff and soil erosion), poverty / wealth (Alternative and more profitable labour sources are a permanent risk of land abandonment that can lead to degradation.)

Secondary causes of degradation: Heavy / extreme rainfall (intensity/amounts) (High intensity erosive rainfall is common), droughts (Dry periods and dry years require higher water availability)

3.8 Prevención, reducción o restauración de la degradación del suelo

Especifique la meta de la Tecnología con relación a la degradación de la tierra:

• prevenir la degradación del suelo
• reducir la degradación del suelo

Comentarios:

Main goals: prevention of land degradation, mitigation / reduction of land degradation

4.1 Dibujo técnico de la Tecnología

4.3 Actividades de establecimiento

	Actividad	Momento (estación)
1.	Purchase of per (to cut pruning residue)

4.4 Costos e insumos necesarios para el establecimiento

	Especifique insumo	Unidad	Cantidad	Costos por unidad	Costos totales por insumo	% de los costos cubiertos por los usuarios de las tierras
Equipo	Per (to cut pruning residue)	piece	1,0	4761,0	4761,0	100,0
Costos totales para establecer la Tecnología					4761,0
Costos totales para establecer la Tecnología en USD					4761,0

Comentarios:

Duration of establishment phase: 12 month(s)
Life span of the per: 10 years. Number of parties sharing: 2

4.5 Actividades de establecimiento/ recurrentes

	Actividad	Momento/ frequencia
1.	Cut alpha-grass (optional)	winter
2.	apply mulch of alpha-grass, almond and pine tree pruning residue	early spring or autumn after almond pruning

4.6 Costos e insumos necesarios para actividades de mantenimiento/ recurrentes (por año)

	Especifique insumo	Unidad	Cantidad	Costos por unidad	Costos totales por insumo	% de los costos cubiertos por los usuarios de las tierras
Mano de obra	Cut alpha-grass (optional)	person/days	4,0	95,25	381,0	100,0
Mano de obra	apply mulch of alpha-grass, almond and pine tree pruning residue	person/days	4,0	10,0	40,0	100,0
Equipo	Machine use	person/days	0,5	88,0	44,0	100,0
Fertilizantes y biocidas	Mulch	tons/ha	15,0	55,53333	833,0	100,0
Indique los costos totales para mantenecer la Tecnología					1298,0
Costos totales para mantener la Tecnología en USD					1298,0

Comentarios:

Machinery/ tools: Tractor and chopper to chop the almond pruning residue.

The original price of the chopper is estimated at $4761. In calculations it is assumed that the chopper is shared between at least two farmers, and with an average farm size of 10 ha, which gives a price of $238/ha establishment costs. Calculations include the cutting of alpha-grass to apply this as mulch in addition to the chopped almond and pine tree residue. Excluding the alpha-grass as a mulch reduces the total maintenance cost to 650. Leaving out also the chopped pine tree residue and using only the chopped almond pruning residue reduces maintenance costs to $44. The costs were indicated assuming a distance of 7 meter between almond trees and a mulch cover around each tree of 3*3 meters. Prices are for spring 2008.

4.7 Factores más determinantes que afectan los costos:

Describa los factores más determinantes que afectan los costos:

Labour for cutting alpha grass, and the price of the mulch are most determining factors of the costs. Almond prunings are free of charge (except for costs to chop them), but will not provide enough mulch. Chopped Pine pruning or straw mulch are relatively expensive.

5.1 Clima

5.2 Topografía

5.3 Suelos

5.4 Disponibilidad y calidad de agua

5.5 Biodiversidad

5.6 Las características de los usuarios de la tierra que aplican la Tecnología

Indique otras características relevantes de los usuarios de las tierras:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users

Difference in the involvement of women and men: Traditionally most agriculture is done by men in this region.

Population density: 10-50 persons/km2

Annual population growth: < 0.5%

15% of the land users are rich and own 20% of the land.
80% of the land users are average wealthy and own 75% of the land.
5% of the land users are poor and own 5% of the land.

Off-farm income specification: There is no difference in the ones who apply the technology and those who don’t. Most farmers do have an off-farm income for example from hunting, work in a factory, or office.

5.7 Área promedio de la tierra usada por usuarios de tierra que aplican la Tecnología

5.8 Tenencia de tierra, uso de tierra y derechos de uso de agua

Tenencia de tierra:

• estado
• individual, con título

Derechos de uso de tierra:

• comunitarios (organizado)
• individual

Derechos de uso de agua:

• comunitarios (organizado)
• individual

Comentarios:

Most land is privately owned. Some shrubland or forest is state property. Water use is organised by permits to water extraction from aquifers on individual basis. Water rights are provided and controlled by the Water authority of the Segura river basin (CHS).

5.9 Acceso a servicios e infraestructura

6.1 Impactos in situ demostrados por la Tecnología

Impactos socioeconómicos

Producción

Disponibilidad y calidad de agua

Ingreso y costos

Impactos socioculturales

Impactos ecológicos

Ciclo de agua/ escurrimiento de sedimento

Suelo

Biodiversidad: vegetación, animales

Reducción de riesgos de desastres y riesgos climáticos

6.2 Impactos fuera del sitio demostrados por la Tecnología

6.3 Exposición y sensibilidad de la Tecnología al cambio climático gradual y a extremos relacionados al clima/ desastres (desde la percepción de los usuarios de tierras)

Cambio climático gradual

Cambio climático gradual

	Estación	Incremento o reducción	¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
temperatura anual		incrementó	bien

Extremos (desastres) relacionados al clima

Desastres climatológicos:

	¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
tormenta de lluvia local	bien
tormenta de viento	bien

Desastres climatológicos

	¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
sequía	bien

Desastres hidrológicos

	¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
inundación general (río)	no muy bien

Otras consecuencias relacionadas al clima

Otras consecuencias relacionadas al clima

	¿Cómo es que la tecnología soporta esto?
periodo reducido de crecimiento	bien

6.4 Análisis costo-beneficio

¿Cómo se comparan los beneficios con los costos de establecimiento (desde la perspectiva de los usuarios de tierra)?

¿Cómo se comparan los beneficios con los costos de mantenimiento/ recurrentes (desde la perspectiva de los usuarios de tierra)?

Comentarios:

Mulch is relatively expensive and so implies an additional cost.

6.5 Adopción de la Tecnología

Comentarios:

There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology

Comments on adoption trend: There is not so much awareness, and most farmers are afraid of possible costs of mulching and don’t count on increased crop yield.

6.7 Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades de la Tecnología

Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades desde la perspectiva del usuario de la tierra
A good surface cover throughout the year provides good protection against erosion and helps reducing number of tillage operations and expenses How can they be sustained / enhanced? no suggestions

Fuerzas/ ventajas/ oportunidades desde la perspectiva del compilador o de otra persona de referencia clave
The main advantage is that a good surface cover is obtained below almonds that traditionally are characterised by a very poor surface cover during the whole year. The mulch will reduce evaporation and prevent erosion to take place. How can they be sustained / enhanced? Cheapest type of mulch should be identified (alpha grass, chopped pruning residues, …).

6.8 Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos de la Tecnología y formas de sobreponerse a ellos

Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos desde la perspectiva del usuario de la tierra	¿Cómo sobreponerse a ellas?
The price of the mulch	Look for alternative low cost materials

Debilidades/ desventajas/ riesgos desde la perspectiva del compilador o de otra persona de referencia clave	¿Cómo sobreponerse a ellas?
The price of the mulch and/or the price of carrying it to the field	Look for alternative low cost materials, the nearest to the plots as possible.
Once the mulch in situ, any tillage operation would incorporate it to the soil, reducing part of its initial benefit; if the mulch is green (alpha grass) it would depress soil N levels upon decomposition, though it would increase SOM in the medium-long term	Avoid tillage in mulched areas

7.1 Métodos/ fuentes de información

7.2 Vínculos a las publicaciones disponibles

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Smets, T., Poesen, J. and Knapen, A., 2008. Spatial scale effects on the effectiveness of organic mulches in reducing soil erosion by water. Earth-Science Reviews, 89(1-2): 1-12.

¿Dónde se halla disponible? ¿Costo?

Internet

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Verdu and Mas 2007. Mulching as an alternative technique for weed management in mandarin orchard tree rows. AGRONOMY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. 27(4): 367-375

¿Dónde se halla disponible? ¿Costo?

Internet

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

http://www.isahispana.com/

¿Dónde se halla disponible? ¿Costo?

Internet

Título, autor, año, ISBN:

Mellouli, H.J., van Wesemael, B., Poesen, J. and Hartmann, R., 2000. Evaporation losses from bare soils as influenced by cultivation techniques in semi-arid regions. Agricultural Water Management, 42(3): 355-369.

¿Dónde se halla disponible? ¿Costo?

Internet