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Water harvesting from concentrated runoff for irrigation purposes [西班牙]

Boqueras (Spanish)

technologies_1517 - 西班牙

完整性: 80%

1. 一般信息

1.2 参与该技术评估和文件编制的资源人员和机构的联系方式

关键资源人

SLM专业人员:
SLM专业人员:
SLM专业人员:

López Carratala Jorge

+34.950.281045

carratala@cebas.csic.es

Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA-CSIC)

General Segura 1, 04001; Almeria; Spain

西班牙

SLM专业人员:

Ibáñez Torres Ascensión

+34.968 36 66 87 / +34 699 65 36 16

ascension.ibanez@carm.es

Consejería de Agricultura y Agua Murcia (CARM)

30008 Murcia, Spain

西班牙

土地使用者:

Escamez Antonio

608 862 629 / 968 43 82 50

Alhagüeces. Zarzilla de Totana

西班牙

SLM专业人员:

bas.vanwesemael@uclouvain.be

Researcher Université Catholique de Lovain (UCL)

Researcher Université Catolique de Lovain (UCL). Belgium

比利时

有助于对技术进行记录/评估的项目名称(如相关)
DESIRE (EU-DES!RE)
有助于对技术进行记录/评估的机构名称(如相关)
EEZA-CSIC (EEZA-CSIC) - 西班牙
有助于对技术进行记录/评估的机构名称(如相关)
Consejería de Agricultura y Agua Murcia (CARM) - 西班牙

1.3 关于使用通过WOCAT记录的数据的条件

(现场)数据是什么时候汇编的?:

12/06/2008

编制者和关键资源人员接受有关使用通过WOCAT记录数据的条件。:

2. SLM技术的说明

2.1 技术简介

技术定义:

Water harvesting from intermittent streams towards nearby fields and terraces during runoff events.

2.2 技术的详细说明

说明:

Water shortage is one of the most limiting factors for sustainable agriculture in large parts of SE-Spain. Part of the solution of this problem may come from the restoration of traditional water harvesting structures. Many of these structures were widely used in SE-Spain already during Arab and Roman times, and are also widespread in N-Africa and the Middle East. However, nowadays in Spain many of them are abandoned and forgotten. Here, we describe the technology of a small earthen- or stone- built bund that diverts flood water from intermittent streams towards cultivated fields with almond orchards and/or cereals. The diverted water will temporarily flood the fields and provide the crops with water. Depending on the slope gradient and the amount of water to be harvested, the fields are organised as single terraces, or as a staircase of terraces. On fields with gradients above ~3%, terraces are necessary to reduce the gradient and to retain the floodwater as long as possible. Water is diverted from one terrace to the next through small spillways in the terrace. The spillways can best be fortified with stones to prevent bank gully formation. The extra input of surface water can double the almond yield. The use of these water harvesting structures is only possible under certain environmental and topographic conditions. The cultivated fields should be at a relatively short distance from an intermittent stream (<~50m), and the stream should have a sufficiently large upstream contributing area to provide significant amounts of runoff water during rainfall events. With these systems, water can be harvested up to 8 times per year, mostly in spring and autumn during high intensity rainfall events. A well designed Boquera system may provide up to 550 mm of additional water, in areas with an average annual rainfall of 300 m.

Purpose of the Technology: The goal of this technology is to increase crop yield. In addition, these structures help to reduce the intensity of floods and reduce the damage caused by them by reducing runoff volume in intermittent streams.

Establishment / maintenance activities and inputs: Water harvesting requires the identification of a suitable location for the construction of a diversion structure. This requires assessment of expected water inflow, which can usually be based on simple field observation during rainfall events and based on local knowledge of land users. It is, however, important to consider whether there are activities upstream that possibly affect the water quality (e.g. farm animals) and to assess the implications the water harvesting might have downstream. Permission is required from the water authorities to construct any type of water harvesting structure. Such structures are built by creating a small bund (<1m height) in the centre or to the side of a stream. Depending on the size, the bund can be built with a shovel or a tractor. The water harvesting structure will require control and some maintenance after each important runoff event. When strengthened with concrete, maintenance will be reduced to approximately once every 5 years.

Natural / human environment: Soils are mostly of shallow to medium depth (20-60 cm), and slopes are gentle to moderate (5-15%). The climate is semi-arid with a mean annual rainfall around 300 mm. Droughts, centred in summer commonly last for more than 4-5 months. Annual potential evapotranspiration rates larger than 1000 mm are common.

2.3 技术照片

2.5 已应用该技术的、本评估所涵盖的国家/地区/地点

国家:

西班牙

区域/州/省:

Murcia

有关地点的进一步说明:

Guadalentin catchment

2.6 实施日期

如果不知道确切的年份,请说明大概的日期:
  • 50多年前(传统)

2.7 技术介绍

详细说明该技术是如何引入的:
  • 作为传统系统的一部分(> 50 年)
注释(项目类型等):

Most of the water harvesting structures are already much older than 50 years and originate even from Roman or Arab times.

3. SLM技术的分类

3.2 应用该技术的当前土地利用类型

农田

农田

  • 乔木与灌木的种植
主要农作物(经济作物及粮食作物):

Major cash crop tree/shrub cropping: Almonds
major cash crop annual cropping: Cereals

混合(作物/放牧/树木),包括农林

混合(作物/放牧/树木),包括农林

  • 农林业
注释:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): There is a lack of water for irrigation of crops limiting the crop types that can be planted as well as the crop yield of dryland farming. A lack of water availability seriously limits the production potential of the soil and results in a low vegetation/crop cover. The relatively high soil erosion rates cause various off-site related problems (i.e. flooding, reservoir siltation) and on-site problems (i.e. gully formation and loss of soil depth).

Major land use problems (land users’ perception): Lack of water for irrigation of crops limiting the crop types that can be planted as well as the crop yield of dryland farming.

Livestock is grazing on crop residues

3.3 有关土地利用的更多信息

该技术所应用土地的供水:
  • 雨养
每年的生长季节数:
  • 1
具体说明:

Longest growing period in days: 220Longest growing period from month to month: november until June

3.4 该技术所属的SLM组

  • 集水

3.5 技术传播

具体说明该技术的分布:
  • 均匀地分布在一个区域
如果该技术均匀地分布在一个区域上,请注明覆盖的大致区域。:
  • < 0.1 平方千米(10 公顷)
注释:

The exact area is not known. Traditionally the technology was common throughout the province of Murcia and the district of the upper Guadalentin, now most are abandoned and destroyed.

3.6 包含该技术的可持续土地管理措施

结构措施

结构措施

  • S1:阶地
  • S11:其它
注释:

Main measures: structural measures

3.7 该技术强调的主要土地退化类型

土壤水蚀

土壤水蚀

  • Wo:场外劣化效应
水质恶化

水质恶化

  • Ha:干旱化
注释:

Main type of degradation addressed: Ha: aridification

Secondary types of degradation addressed: Wo: offsite degradation effects

Main causes of degradation: droughts (Dry periods and dry years require higher water availability)

Secondary causes of degradation: crop management (annual, perennial, tree/shrub) (Large areas without a protective vegetation cover cause increased runoff and erosion rates and facilitat flash floods), over abstraction / excessive withdrawal of water (for irrigation, industry, etc.) (Over-abstraction leads to a lowering of the water table. Therefore additional aquifer abstraction is not allowed by water authority.), Heavy / extreme rainfall (intensity/amounts) (Extreme rainfall causes flash floods with high water losses and low effectiveness for crop production.)

3.8 防止、减少或恢复土地退化

具体数量名该技术与土地退化有关的目标:
  • 防止土地退化
  • 减少土地退化
注释:

Main goals: prevention of land degradation, mitigation / reduction of land degradation

4. 技术规范、实施活动、投入和成本

4.1 该技术的技术图纸

作者:

Joris de Vente

4.2 技术规范/技术图纸说明

Sketch of a water harvesting structure consisting of an earthen- or stone- built dyke that diverts water into cultivated fields. Several terraces are present in the fields in order to reduce slope gradient and retain water longer within the fields to allow maximum infiltration. Depending on the expected inflow of water several spillways can be made per terrace to prevent excessive concentration of flow in each spillway.

Technical knowledge required for field staff / advisors: moderate (Selection of the proper location and assessment of up- and downstream linkages.)

Technical knowledge required for land users: low (Practical implementation of the water harvesting structure does not require a high level of knowledge)

Main technical functions: control of concentrated runoff: retain / trap, control of concentrated runoff: impede / retard, control of concentrated runoff: drain / divert, increase of infiltration, water harvesting / increase water supply

Secondary technical functions: increase of groundwater level / recharge of groundwater, water spreading

Spillway
Spacing between structures (m): 50
Depth of ditches/pits/dams (m): 0.5
Width of ditches/pits/dams (m): 1-3

Structural measure: water harvest dyke
Depth of ditches/pits/dams (m): <1
Width of ditches/pits/dams (m): <2
Length of ditches/pits/dams (m): <50

Construction material (earth): Soil from the stream banks is used to built the dyke and provide an opening into the cultivated fiel

Construction material (stone): Stones are used to fortify the dyke and spillways against the impact of flow.

Construction material (concrete): Potentially concrete is used to fortify the dyke and spillways against the impact of flow.

Specification of dams/ pans/ ponds: Capacity 5m3

Catchment area: >0.5km2m2

Beneficial area: 1-2 ham2

Slope of dam wall inside: 100%;
Slope of dam wall outside: 100%

Dimensions of spillways: 1-3m wide and <50 cm deep

4.3 有关投入和成本计算的一般信息

其它/国家货币(具体说明):

EURO

注明美元与当地货币的汇率(如相关):1美元=:

0.63

注明雇用劳工的每日平均工资成本:

79.00

4.4 技术建立活动

活动 措施类型 时间
1. Construction of a dyke (dam) 结构性的 summer or winter

4.5 技术建立所需要的费用和投入

对投入进行具体说明 单位 数量 单位成本 每项投入的总成本 土地使用者承担的成本%
劳动力 Labour 5 meter dyke 1.0 150.0 150.0 100.0
设备 Machine use 5 meter dyke 1.0 350.0 350.0 100.0
施工材料 Concrete 5 meter dyke 1.0 400.0 400.0 100.0
技术建立所需总成本 900.0
注释:

Duration of establishment phase: 1 month(s)

4.6 维护/经常性活动

活动 措施类型 时间/频率
1. restoration of the dyke 结构性的 once in 5 yr (after important events)

4.7 维护/经常性活动所需要的费用和投入(每年)

对投入进行具体说明 单位 数量 单位成本 每项投入的总成本 土地使用者承担的成本%
劳动力 Labour 5 meter dyke 1.0 4.0 4.0 100.0
设备 Machine use 5 meter dyke 1.0 12.0 12.0 100.0
施工材料 Concrete 5 meter dyke 1.0 25.0 25.0 100.0
技术维护所需总成本 41.0
注释:

Machinery/ tools: For construction and maintenance of the dyke tractor or small bulldozer is required.

The costs were indicated assuming a length of the bund dimensions of 5*1*1 metres. Maintenance is required once every 5 years, so yearly costs are the total costs divided by 5 (Prices are for spring 2008).

4.8 影响成本的最重要因素

描述影响成本的最决定性因素:

Labour costs and price of concrete are the most determinate factors affecting the costs.

5. 自然和人文环境

5.1 气候

年降雨量
  • < 250毫米
  • 251-500毫米
  • 501-750毫米
  • 751-1,000毫米
  • 1,001-1,500毫米
  • 1,501-2,000毫米
  • 2,001-3,000毫米
  • 3,001-4,000毫米
  • > 4,000毫米
指定年平均降雨量(若已知),单位为mm:

300.00

农业气候带
  • 半干旱

Thermal climate class: subtropics

Thermal climate class: temperate. The higher parts are generally somewhat colder

5.2 地形

平均坡度:
  • 水平(0-2%)
  • 缓降(3-5%)
  • 平缓(6-10%)
  • 滚坡(11-15%)
  • 崎岖(16-30%)
  • 陡峭(31-60%)
  • 非常陡峭(>60%)
地形:
  • 高原/平原
  • 山脊
  • 山坡
  • 山地斜坡
  • 麓坡
  • 谷底
垂直分布带:
  • 0-100 m a.s.l.
  • 101-500 m a.s.l.
  • 501-1,000 m a.s.l.
  • 1,001-1,500 m a.s.l.
  • 1,501-2,000 m a.s.l.
  • 2,001-2,500 m a.s.l.
  • 2,501-3,000 m a.s.l.
  • 3,001-4,000 m a.s.l.
  • > 4,000 m a.s.l.
说明该技术是否专门应用于:
  • 凹陷情况
关于地形的注释和进一步规范:

Landforms: Valley floors (mostly concave slope section)

5.3 土壤

平均土层深度:
  • 非常浅(0-20厘米)
  • 浅(21-50厘米)
  • 中等深度(51-80厘米)
  • 深(81-120厘米)
  • 非常深(> 120厘米)
土壤质地(表土):
  • 中粒(壤土、粉土)
  • 细粒/重质(粘土)
表土有机质:
  • 中(1-3%)
  • 低(<1%)

5.4 水资源可用性和质量

地下水位表:

5-50米

地表水的可用性:

匮乏/没有

水质(未处理):

仅供农业使用(灌溉)

关于水质和水量的注释和进一步规范:

Ground water table: >50m (There is a lowering of groundwater table due to overexploitation for irrigation purposes)
Availability of surface water: Poor/none. Sporadically excess when there are flash floods during extreme rainfall events
Water quality (untreated) For agricultural use only (irrigation)(groundwater)

5.5 生物多样性

物种多样性:

5.6 应用该技术的土地使用者的特征

生产系统的市场定位:
  • 混合(生计/商业
  • 商业/市场
非农收入:
  • > 收入的50%
相对财富水平:
  • 平均水平
个人或集体:
  • 个人/家庭
机械化水平:
  • 机械化/电动
性别:
  • 男人
说明土地使用者的其他有关特征:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users
Difference in the involvement of women and men: Traditionally most agriculture is done by men in this region.
Population density: 10-50 persons/km2
Annual population growth: < 0.5%
15% of the land users are rich and own 20% of the land.
80% of the land users are average wealthy and own 75% of the land.
5% of the land users are poor and own 5% of the land.
Off-farm income specification: There is no difference in the ones who apply the technology and those who don’t. Most farmers do have an off-farm income for example from hunting, work in a factory, or office.

Market orientation: Commercial/market or mixed (subsistence and commercial)(some farmers are weekend or hobby farmers and not market oriented)

5.7 应用该技术的土地使用者拥有或租用的平均土地面积

  • < 0.5 公顷
  • 0.5-1 公顷
  • 1-2 公顷
  • 2-5公顷
  • 5-15公顷
  • 15-50公顷
  • 50-100公顷
  • 100-500公顷
  • 500-1,000公顷
  • 1,000-10,000公顷
  • > 10,000公顷
这被认为是小规模、中规模还是大规模的(参照当地实际情况)?:
  • 小规模的
注释:

Average area of land owned or leased by land users applying the Technology: 2-5 ha, 5-15 ha, 15-50 ha, 100-500 ha (There are few farmers with large properties within the study area)(

5.8 土地所有权、土地使用权和水使用权

土地所有权:
  • 个人,有命名
土地使用权:
  • 社区(有组织)
  • 个人
用水权:
  • 社区(有组织)
  • 个人
注释:

Most land is privately owned. The streams are not privately owned. Therefore permits are required to construct a water harvesting structure. Some shrubland or forest is state property. Water rights are provided and controlled by the Water authority of the Segura river basin (CHS).

5.9 进入服务和基础设施的通道

健康:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
教育:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
技术援助:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
就业(例如非农):
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
市场:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
能源:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
道路和交通:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
饮用水和卫生设施:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的
金融服务:
  • 贫瘠
  • 适度的

6. 影响和结论性说明

6.1 该技术的现场影响

社会经济效应

生产

作物生产

降低
增加
注释/具体说明:

Depending on the amount of water harvested yield may be the same or increase slightly

生产故障风险

增加
降低
水资源可用性和质量

灌溉用水的可用性

降低
增加

灌溉用水的质量

降低
增加
收入和成本

农业投入费用

增加
降低
注释/具体说明:

Implementation of dykes is considered relatively expensive

农业收入

降低
增加

社会文化影响

冲突缓解

恶化
改良
注释/具体说明:

Water extraction by a water harvesting may cause less water at downstream locations, whihc may cause conflicts

Improved livelihoods and human well-being

decreased
increased
注释/具体说明:

during Roman and Arab times when most structures were operative they increased significantly the production. Nowadays, most of them are abandoned. However, those that are operational do cause increased crop yields.

生态影响

水循环/径流

水量

降低
增加

水的回收/收集

减少
改良

地表径流

增加
降低

多余水的排放

减少
改良
注释/具体说明:

For small flood events only

地下水位/含水层

下降
补水
注释/具体说明:

Possibly a small effect

土壤

土壤水分

降低
增加

6.2 该技术的场外影响已经显现

旱季稳定可靠的水流

减少
增加

下游洪水

增加
减少
注释/具体说明:

If various structures are present in a stream and only for relatively low intensity events

对公共/私人基础设施的破坏

增加
减少

6.3 技术对渐变气候以及与气候相关的极端情况/灾害的暴露和敏感性(土地使用者认为的极端情况/灾害)

渐变气候

渐变气候
季节 气候变化/极端天气的类型 该技术是如何应对的?
年温度 增加

气候有关的极端情况(灾害)

气象灾害
该技术是如何应对的?
局地暴雨 不好
局地风暴
气候灾害
该技术是如何应对的?
干旱
水文灾害
该技术是如何应对的?
比较和缓的(河道)洪水 不好

其他气候相关的后果

其他气候相关的后果
该技术是如何应对的?
缩短生长期
注释:

The crop type is sensitive to changes in water availability under the semi arid conditions.

6.4 成本效益分析

技术收益与技术建立成本相比如何(从土地使用者的角度看)?
短期回报:

消极

长期回报:

积极

技术收益与技术维护成本/经常性成本相比如何(从土地使用者的角度看)?
短期回报:

积极

长期回报:

积极

注释:

Implementation of the technology is relatively expensive. Once installed, maintenance is not expensive and pays off because of higher productivity.

6.5 技术采用

在所有采用这项技术的人当中,有多少人是自发地采用该技术,即未获得任何物质奖励/付款?:
  • 90-100%
注释:

100% of land user families have adopted the Technology without any external material support

There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology

Comments on adoption trend: Much of this knowledge is forgotten and not applied or maintained anymore.

6.7 该技术的优点/长处/机会

土地使用者眼中的长处/优势/机会
The extra input of free water allows higher crop productivity.
编制者或其他关键资源人员认为的长处/优势/机会
This technology is very effective at increasing water available for crop production and so increasing crop yield and farm income

How can they be sustained / enhanced? Temporarily store the harvested water in a cistern to be used for irrigation using drip irrigation when most needed.
The technology takes advantage of floodwater that is otherwise lost because of the erratic character and short duration of flow

How can they be sustained / enhanced? Finding the optimal location for the water harvesting structures using a modelling approach

6.8 技术的弱点/缺点/风险及其克服方法

土地使用者认为的弱点/缺点/风险 如何克服它们?
Farmers consider it relatively expensive to implement and there is no guarantee for water as this depends on the rainfall events. Subsidies might help to install these structures where feasible. Therefore, good assessments of expected water inflow volumes are required before construction
编制者或其他关键资源人员认为的弱点/缺点/风险 如何克服它们?
The implementation costs are relatively high when the bunds are made of concrete Use of cheap materials that are freely available (stones from the fields). However, it is important to make the structure as resistant as possible against flood events.
The water provided by these techniques is mostly interesting for small- and medium- scale rainfed farming. Intensively irrigated farming requires more water and a guarantee for water independently of flood events Intensively irrigated farming might use this technology as an additional source of water and may store the harvested water in a cistern for use when needed.

7. 参考和链接

7.2 参考可用出版物

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

rot, E., van Wesemael, B., Benet, A.S. and House, M.A., 2008. Water harvesting potential in function of hillslope characteristics: A case study from the Sierra de Gador Journal of Arid Environments 72(7):1213-1231

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Giráldez, J.V., Ayuso, J.L., Garcia, A., López, J.G. and Roldán, J., 1988. Water harvesting strategies in the semiarid climate of southeastern Spain. Agricultural Water Management, 14(1-4): 253-263.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Hooke, J.M. and Mant, J.M., 2002. Floodwater use and management strategies in valleys of southeast Spain. Land Degradation & Development, 13(2): 165-175.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

López-Gálvez, J. and Losada, A., 1998. EVOLUCIÓN DE TÉCNICAS DE RIEGO EN EL SUDESTE DE ESPAÑA. Ingeniería del Agua, 5(3): 41-50.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Nasri, S., Albergel, J., Cudennec, C. and Berndtsson, R., 2004. Hydrological processes in macrocatchment water harvestingin the arid region of Tunisia: the traditional system of tabias. Hydrological Sciences-Journal, 49(2): 261-272.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

van Wesemael, B., et al., 1998. Collection and storage of runoff from hillslopes in a semi-arid environment: geomorphic and hydrologic aspects of the aljibe system in Almeria (Spain). Journal of Arid Environments 40(1):1-14

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

Internet

标题、作者、年份、ISBN:

Greenpeace, 2007. El negocio del agua en la cuenca del Segura, Greenpeace.

可以从哪里获得?成本如何?

www.greenpeace.es

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