Emergency infrastructure, shelter and access [Bangladesh]
- Creation:
- Update:
- Compiler: TUHIN SAMADDAR
- Editor: –
- Reviewers: Alexandra Gavilano, Hanspeter Liniger, Nicole Harari
দুর্যোগ সহনশীন অবকাঠামো উন্নয়ন (Durjog-shahonshil abokathamo unnayon)
technologies_664 - Bangladesh
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- Emergency infrastructure, shelter and access: 28 مارس، 2017 (inactive)
- Emergency infrastructure including shelter and linked transport infrastructure: 2 أغسطس، 2017 (inactive)
- Emergency infrastructure including shelter and linked transport infrastructure: 10 نوفمبر، 2017 (inactive)
- Emergency infrastructure including shelter and linked transport infrastructure: 5 مارس، 2019 (public)
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Expand all Collapse all1. معلومات عامة
1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology
Key resource person(s)
Project Staff:
Mustafa Golam
+880 1718770373 / +880 1730799762
pmdrrwash16@gmail.com
Bangladesh Red Crescent Society
Project Manager, DRRWASH Project O⌀ਈce, Shukhsantir Bazar, Dhanghora, Gaibandha, Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Project staff:
Razzak Abdur
+880 1730 799763 / +880 1730 799763
razzak.pe@gmail.com
Bangladesh Red Crescent Society
Project Engineer, DRRWASH Project O⌀ਈce, Shukhsantir Bazar, Dhanghora, Gaibandha, Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Project Staff:
Islam Saiful
+880 1730 799746 / +880 1730 799746
saiful644@gmail.com
Bangladesh Red Crescent Society
Field Officer DRR and Training, DRRWASH Project O⌀ਈce, Shukhsantir Bazar, Dhanghora, Gaibandha, Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)
Book project: where people and their land are safer - A Compendium of Good Practices in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) (where people and their land are safer)Name of the institution(s) which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)
Swiss Red Cross (Swiss Red Cross) - Switzerland1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT
When were the data compiled (in the field)?
04/10/2016
The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:
نعم
1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology
Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?
لا
Comments:
The technology presented has no direct bearing on land degradation.
1.5 Reference to Questionnaire(s) on SLM Approaches
2. Description of the SLM Technology
2.1 Short description of the Technology
Definition of the Technology:
Emergency infrastructure, shelter and access, consists in establishing flood shelters (for people and animals) including flood-proof collective water sources and communication infrastructure as well as health and school facilities cum emergency shelters. The infrastructure is adapted to the specific context of the ‘Char’ land in Bangladesh. Together with improved flood related forecasting measures this allows for a relatively safe and healthy living and has led to increased and timely land use, resulting in adapted livelihoods, reduced health costs and increased income.
2.2 Detailed description of the Technology
Description:
The technology applies to the specific context of the ‘char’ land, characterised as riverine sandy island. More than 80% of the land in the intervention area can be classified as Char and is inhabited by 60% of the population served by the project. Every year, especially during floods, the rivers deposit huge amount of silt sediment that makes the land fertile. At the same time, river action washes away some portion of the char which at times can be quite large and has a strong impact on people's lives and livelihoods. The char land is furthermore characterised by its lack of public infrastructure and remoteness to public services.
The technology is applied largely in relation to human environment. It consists of setting up an emergency infrastructure and ensuring access during times of crises/hazards. It has to be understood in close interrelation with approach of setting up an early warning system (for a description of the related approach, see reference in section 1.5 above). The emergency infrastructure includes flood shelters (for people and animals), flood-proof collective water sources and sanitation systems, communication infrastructure such as foot bridges and elevated rural roads, as well as flood-proof health and school facilities that also serve as emergency shelters during hazards. The purpose of the technology is to ensure safety of life and protection of assets during times of emergency and also to mitigate sufferings related to floods. The major activities include facilitating the development of community-led risk reduction action plans and their implementation through community participation and engagement of local governance institutions. This includes maintenance of the built infrastructure as the joint responsibility of the community and the local government.
Land use, especially sowing and harvesting, is increasingly linked to flood related forecasting measures which has led to significant adaptation in the timing of farming activities. This coupled with the creation and access to emergency infrastructure allows for a relatively safe and healthy living. The adopted technology and approach has led to adapted livelihoods, reduced health costs and increased income. The technology has furthermore led to mainstreaming disaster risk management in policies and approach of local government institutions. Increasingly the local goverment’s cash and food for work programmes are targeting establishment and/or reinforcement of emergency infrastructure that can cater to larger population. Increased investments are made especially towards flood shelters and improving communication and access to emergency infrastructure. Since the technology is based on local knowledge and has been developed in consultation with the involved communities, it is generally well accepted with a fair degree of ownership and involvement. However, parts of the region are also prone to river erosion and this has a destructive impact on built infrastructures. The technology does not assure any safeguard against this form of uncertain river action.
2.3 Photos of the Technology
General remarks regarding photos:
Glimpse of few technologies that served as emergency infrastructure, shelter and access to health and WATSAN facilities.
2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment
بلد:
Bangladesh
Region/ State/ Province:
North-Bengal
Further specification of location:
Kamarjani and Mollar Char union in Sadar Upazila and Haldia union in Shaghata Upazila of Gaibandha District
Comments:
Since the disaster resilient infrastructure set up by the project is installed at a huge number of sites (as indicated in the description above), only a sample of the various emergency infrastructures are indicated on the map above (If needed a comprehensive GPS reading of all infrastructure built by the project can be provided separately).
Map
×2.6 Date of implementation
Indicate year of implementation:
2014
If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:
- less than 10 years ago (recently)
2.7 Introduction of the Technology
Specify how the Technology was introduced:
- as part of a traditional system (> 50 years)
- through projects/ external interventions
Comments (type of project, etc.):
The technology has elements of traditional practice (raised plinths for flood protection) and project promoted interventions (emergency shelter and access infrastructure).
3. Classification of the SLM Technology
3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology
- reduce risk of disasters
- create beneficial economic impact
- create beneficial social impact
3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied
![الأراضي الزراعية](/static/assets/img/pictos/land_1.png)
الأراضي الزراعية
- Annual cropping
Main crops (cash and food crops):
Paddy, Wheat, maize, jute, chilli, pulse, sweet potato
![Settlements, infrastructure](/static/assets/img/pictos/land_urban.png)
Settlements, infrastructure
- Settlements, buildings
- Traffic: roads, railways
Comments:
Despite the lack of public infrastructure and services and being exposed to natural hazards people tend to prefer to live in the char as it brings significant economic benefits for them: crops grow rapidly and abundantly with significantly lower input costs than on the mainland.
If land use has changed due to the implementation of the Technology, indicate land use before implementation of the Technology:
Before the intervention, people living on char land depended on their traditional early warning mechanisms and were frequently surprised by floods that destroyed their crops and put their lives in danger. Due to recurring floods, people didn’t have the means to improve their built environment.
3.3 Further information about land use
Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:
- mixed rainfed-irrigated
Comments:
Water supply for the land comprises a mix of rainfed, irrigated and post flooding sources.
Number of growing seasons per year:
- 3
حددها:
Kharif (monsoon crop), Rabi (winter crop), and Summer/pre-monsoon crop
Livestock density (if relevant):
Cow, buffalo, goat, lamb and donkey are very common in the area. People rear these for cultivation, transportation and for having meat. Every household have at least a pair or more of livestock.
3.4 SLM group to which the Technology belongs
- improved ground/ vegetation cover
- Emergency infrastructure, shelter and access
3.5 Spread of the Technology
Specify the spread of the Technology:
- evenly spread over an area
If the Technology is evenly spread over an area, indicate approximate area covered:
- 1-10 km2
Comments:
Though emergency infrastructures are built at specific sites, their use and benefits are evenly spread over an expanded area.
3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology
![structural measures](/static/assets/img/pictos/swc_1_struc.png)
structural measures
- S7: Water harvesting/ supply/ irrigation equipment
- S9: Shelters for plants and animals
![management measures](/static/assets/img/pictos/swc_4_manag.png)
management measures
- M4: Major change in timing of activities
Comments:
In addition to the structural and management measures described above, the technology involves additional elements such as flood-proof collective water supply and sanitation systems and communication infrastructure.
3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology
3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation
Comments:
NA
4. Technical specifications, implementation activities, inputs, and costs
4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology
4.2 Technical specifications/ explanations of technical drawing
The built structural mitigation options have following technical specification:
1. School plinth: Dimension: Length-112' x Width-75' x Height- 5.5', plinth slope- 1:1.5, Capacity: 540 person, Construction material used: soil and turfing (grass)
2. Flood shelter: Dimension: Length-220' x Width-220' x Height- 5.5', plinth slope- 1:1.5, Capacity: 350 families, Construction material used: soil and turfing (grass)
3. Road construction/repair: Dimension: Length-925' x Width-12' x Height- 3' (from existing level), plinth slope- 1:1.5, Capacity: 3 villages (approx:1000 families), Construction material used: soil and turfing (grass).
4. Wooden bridge: Dimension: Length-60' x Width-7' x Height- 12', plinth slope- 1:1.5, Capacity: 600 families approximately, Construction material used: wood, nails, tar, soil and turfing
5. Community Resource Centre cum Community Clinic (CRC-CC): Dimension: Length-110' x Width-80' x Height- 5.6', slop- 1:1.5, (Building size: 100' x 18' x 10') Capacity: 2000 families in 5 village, Construction material used: soil and turfing (grass), bricks, sand, cement, rod, iron angel and CGI sheet.
6. Disaster resilient tube well: Dimension: Length-5' 10" x Width-5' x Height- 3', Boring:100 feet, Capacity: 200 families, Construction material used: bricks, sand, cement, rod, tube well head, pvc pipe, cylinder, piston rod etc. Vertical intervals: 2 in each village.
7. Tube well platform: Dimension: Length-4' 10" x Width-4' x Height- 1', Capacity: 100 families, Construction material used: bricks, sand, cement, pvc pipe
4.3 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs
Specify how costs and inputs were calculated:
- per Technology unit
Specify unit:
School plinth: 125,000BDT, Flood shelter: 496,000BDT, Road construction/repair: 92,000BDT, Wooden bridge: 85,000BDT, CRC-CC: 1800,000 BDT, Disaster resilient tube well: 30,000BDT, Tube well platform: 4,700BDT
Specify volume, length, etc. (if relevant):
Mentioned above
other/ national currency (specify):
Bangladeshi Taka (BDT)
Indicate exchange rate from USD to local currency (if relevant): 1 USD =:
79,0
Indicate average wage cost of hired labour per day:
350 BDT
4.4 Establishment activities
Activity | Type of measure | Timing | |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Raising school compound | Structural | During dry season |
2. | Construction of Flood Shelter | Structural | During dry season |
3. | Road construction above flood level | Structural | During dry season |
4. | Construction of wooden bridge | Structural | During dry season |
5. | Construction of Community Resource Center (CRC) house | Structural | During dry season |
6. | Installation of disaster resilient (DRR) tube well | Structural | During dry season |
7. | Construction of concrete platform of old tube well | Structural | During dry season |
Comments:
As can be seen that all the above activities are structural in nature and can be undertaken efficiently only in dry season.
4.5 Costs and inputs needed for establishment
If possible, break down the costs of establishment according to the following table, specifying inputs and costs per input. If you are unable to break down the costs, give an estimation of the total costs of establishing the Technology:
43064900,0
If land user bore less than 100% of costs, indicate who covered the remaining costs:
10% of all construction cost (except CRC) is borne by the user. Another 15% (approx) is provided by the local government bodies. Remaining 75% is subsidised by the project.
Comments:
Defining costs of establishment is bit tricky as the establishments are not same in nature and also size and costs vary from one village to another depending on the geographical location. However, average unit costs of built assets are given below:
1. School plinth: average unit cost: 125,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:4, Total cost: 500,000 BDT
2. Flood shelter: average unit cost: 496,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:4, Total cost:1,488,000 BDT
3. Road construction/repair: average unit cost: 92,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:4, Total cost:20, 368,000 BDT
4. Wooden bridge: average unit cost: 85,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:4, Total cost: 340,000 BDT
5. Community Resource Centre cum Community Clinic (CRC-CC): average unit cost: 1,800,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:3, Total cost:5,400,000 BDT
6. Disaster resilient tube well: average unit cost: 30,000BDT, Number of unit constructed:53, Total cost:1,590,000 BDT
7. Tube well platform: average unit cost: 4,700BDT, Number of unit constructed:790, Total cost:3,713,000 BDT
4.6 Maintenance/ recurrent activities
Activity | Type of measure | Timing/ frequency | |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Raising school compound | Structural | During dry season |
2. | Construction of Flood Shelter | Structural | During dry season |
3. | Road construction above flood level | Structural | During dry season |
4. | Construction of wooden bridge | Structural | During dry season |
5. | Construction of Community Resource Center (CRC) house | Structural | During dry season |
6. | Installation of disaster resilient (DRR) tube well | Structural | During dry season |
7. | Construction of concrete platform of old tube well | Structural | During dry season |
Comments:
The user and local government (UDMC) are mainly responsible for maintenance of all built assets and structures including the CRC. The relevant operation/repair and maintenance training has been provided by the project.. Maintenance manuals and guidelines have been developed and disseminated. Also, repair and maintenance equipment has been provided to cadre of users/caretakers trained in repair/maintenance work.
4.7 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)
If land user bore less than 100% of costs, indicate who covered the remaining costs:
N/A
4.8 Most important factors affecting the costs
Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:
Transportation of raw material to sites varies across seasons. In the dry season it is much higher compared to monsoon as the delivery of material is easier in the latter due to extended river outreach.
5. Natural and human environment
5.1 Climate
Annual rainfall
- < 250 mm
- 251-500 mm
- 501-750 mm
- 751-1,000 mm
- 1,001-1,500 mm
- 1,501-2,000 mm
- 2,001-3,000 mm
- 3,001-4,000 mm
- > 4,000 mm
Specify average annual rainfall (if known), in mm:
2134,80
Specifications/ comments on rainfall:
Annual average rainfall;
Rainy season: April- October
Occurrence of heavy rain: June-July
Length of dry period: November-March
Indicate the name of the reference meteorological station considered:
18 Gaibandha Sadar, Gaibandha
Agro-climatic zone
- humid
Tropical humid climatic zone.
Temperature: maximum 33.5°C, minimum 10.5°C
5.2 Topography
Slopes on average:
- flat (0-2%)
- gentle (3-5%)
- moderate (6-10%)
- rolling (11-15%)
- hilly (16-30%)
- steep (31-60%)
- very steep (>60%)
Landforms:
- plateau/plains
- ridges
- mountain slopes
- hill slopes
- footslopes
- valley floors
Altitudinal zone:
- 0-100 m a.s.l.
- 101-500 m a.s.l.
- 501-1,000 m a.s.l.
- 1,001-1,500 m a.s.l.
- 1,501-2,000 m a.s.l.
- 2,001-2,500 m a.s.l.
- 2,501-3,000 m a.s.l.
- 3,001-4,000 m a.s.l.
- > 4,000 m a.s.l.
Indicate if the Technology is specifically applied in:
- not relevant
Comments and further specifications on topography:
Information on altitudinal zone collected from the website: www.getamap.net
5.3 Soils
Soil depth on average:
- very shallow (0-20 cm)
- shallow (21-50 cm)
- moderately deep (51-80 cm)
- deep (81-120 cm)
- very deep (> 120 cm)
Soil texture (topsoil):
- medium (loamy, silty)
- fine/ heavy (clay)
Soil texture (> 20 cm below surface):
- coarse/ light (sandy)
- medium (loamy, silty)
Topsoil organic matter:
- medium (1-3%)
If available, attach full soil description or specify the available information, e.g. soil type, soil PH/ acidity, Cation Exchange Capacity, nitrogen, salinity etc.
N/A
5.4 Water availability and quality
Ground water table:
5-50 m
Availability of surface water:
medium
Water quality (untreated):
good drinking water
Is water salinity a problem?
لا
Is flooding of the area occurring?
نعم
Regularity:
frequently
Comments and further specifications on water quality and quantity:
In the dry season water crisis occurs. Open defecation and use of pesticide in farming are key pollutants of water sources.
5.5 Biodiversity
Species diversity:
- medium
Habitat diversity:
- medium
Comments and further specifications on biodiversity:
Biodiversity can be rated as moderate or medium both in terms of species and habitat. It is stable and and often self generating.
5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology
Sedentary or nomadic:
- Sedentary
- Semi-nomadic
Market orientation of production system:
- mixed (subsistence/ commercial
Off-farm income:
- less than 10% of all income
Relative level of wealth:
- poor
Individuals or groups:
- individual/ household
- groups/ community
Level of mechanization:
- animal traction
- mechanized/ motorized
Gender:
- women
- men
Age of land users:
- youth
- middle-aged
Indicate other relevant characteristics of the land users:
N/A
5.7 Average area of land owned or leased by land users applying the Technology
- < 0.5 ha
- 0.5-1 ha
- 1-2 ha
- 2-5 ha
- 5-15 ha
- 15-50 ha
- 50-100 ha
- 100-500 ha
- 500-1,000 ha
- 1,000-10,000 ha
- > 10,000 ha
Is this considered small-, medium- or large-scale (referring to local context)?
- small-scale
Comments:
People living in Chars have small landholding which often produces enough for subsistence and, in some cases, for market purposes.
5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights
Land ownership:
- state
- individual, not titled
Land use rights:
- open access (unorganized)
- leased
Water use rights:
- communal (organized)
- individual
Comments:
Land ownership is quite complex as Chars by nature are unstable habitats. In principle land is owned by state but in most cases the politician - musclemen nexus exercises real control. This results in leasing and renting of land which is the predominant form of land ownership in Chars.
5.9 Access to services and infrastructure
health:
- poor
- moderate
- good
education:
- poor
- moderate
- good
technical assistance:
- poor
- moderate
- good
employment (e.g. off-farm):
- poor
- moderate
- good
markets:
- poor
- moderate
- good
energy:
- poor
- moderate
- good
roads and transport:
- poor
- moderate
- good
drinking water and sanitation:
- poor
- moderate
- good
financial services:
- poor
- moderate
- good
Access to mobile phone and internet:
- poor
- moderate
- good
6. Impacts and concluding statements
6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown
Socio-economic impacts
Production
crop production
Quantity before SLM:
3600 kg/hectare (maize)
Quantity after SLM:
1,1400 kg/hectare (maize)
Comments/ specify:
Crop production has increased thrice due to stability of household which has led to stable use of land in the chars.
Water availability and quality
drinking water availability
Quantity before SLM:
No safe drinking water source was available
Quantity after SLM:
More than 40% water source are safe
Comments/ specify:
Collective water supply systems have groundwater sources and thus no treatment is needed. Further, aspects of availability, easy access and sustainable availability of sufficient water of acceptable quality are well considered. Families can access 10 litres per capita per day (LPCD) during emergencies (which is in line with Sphere standards) and during normal times 40 LPCD is what families can collect from these water sources. All such water sources are within a distance of 50 metres from the settlement as per Bangladesh standards.
drinking water quality
Quantity before SLM:
Reliable data not available
Quantity after SLM:
All households have access to safe drinking water as per govt. standard for rural areas
Comments/ specify:
The govt. standard for rural areas is approximately 40 LPCD (litres per capita per day): the collective water infrastructure built by the project ensures fulfillment of minimum standards set by the govt for safe drinking water.
Income and costs
farm income
Quantity before SLM:
25% families had farm income
Quantity after SLM:
95% families have farm income
Comments/ specify:
Cattle and poultries are safe during disaster
Socio-cultural impacts
health situation
Comments/ specify:
The disaster mitigation measures has significantly improved the health situation of the target population.
community institutions
Quantity before SLM:
Few credit groups in intervention villages
Quantity after SLM:
30 CBOs (VDMC) and 3 Local Govt. Committee (UDMC)
Comments/ specify:
CBOs and govt mandated institutions have been promoted through project initiatives.
national institutions
Comments/ specify:
CRC is also being used for UDMC office which is an important committee of union parishad.
conflict mitigation
Quantity before SLM:
Widespread
Quantity after SLM:
Rare
Comments/ specify:
Conflict sensitive approach has significantly reduced the incidence of conflicts.
Ecological impacts
Water cycle/ runoff
water quantity
Quantity before SLM:
Data not available
Quantity after SLM:
Same
Comments/ specify:
The disaster resilient tube well ensures year round drinking water.
Climate and disaster risk reduction
flood impacts
Quantity before SLM:
95% families were effected from flood
Quantity after SLM:
47% families are affected from flood
Comments/ specify:
The above figures are from 2016 when Bangladesh experienced one of the worst floods in recent times.
6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown
Comments regarding impact assessment:
N/A
6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)
Climate-related extremes (disasters)
Meteorological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it? | |
---|---|
local rainstorm | moderately |
local sandstorm/ duststorm | well |
local windstorm | well |
Climatological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it? | |
---|---|
heatwave | well |
cold wave | well |
drought | well |
Hydrological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it? | |
---|---|
general (river) flood | well |
landslide | not well |
Comments:
In some cases the appropriate answer would have been "not applicable" but since this is not there, we have selected "well".
6.4 Cost-benefit analysis
How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?
Short-term returns:
very positive
Long-term returns:
positive
How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?
Short-term returns:
positive
Long-term returns:
slightly positive
Comments:
The limited returns that have been generated by the project is highly valued by the users from a cost - benefit perspective; especially when they understand that the project is not directly linked to land management practices. Thus, the indirect benefits are perceived to have high value.
6.5 Adoption of the Technology
- more than 50%
If available, quantify (no. of households and/ or area covered):
Out of a total of 8828 HHs targeted by the project, around five thousand HHs in three union have benefitted from the implementation of the technology.
Of all those who have adopted the Technology, how many have did so spontaneously, i.e. without receiving any material incentives/ payments?
- 0-10%
6.6 التكيف
Has the Technology been modified recently to adapt to changing conditions?
نعم
If yes, indicate to which changing conditions it was adapted:
- labour availability (e.g. due to migration)
Specify adaptation of the Technology (design, material/ species, etc.):
Dredging machine has been used for building some emergency infrastructure at few sites due to unavailability of labour at the time of construction.
6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology
Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the land user’s view |
---|
- Emergency structures have a multipurpose use that includes community meeting, workshop and training - Expanded opportunities of communication during flood |
Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view |
---|
- Community is aware and driven to implement flood preparedness and risk reduction measures on its own - Appropriate measures can significantly change people's mindset and behaviour |
6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them
Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the land user’s view | How can they be overcome? |
---|---|
- River erosion threatens built structures - High investment needed for building physical structures (e.g. CRC building) in the char which the local government and community find difficult to finance without external support. |
- Careful site selection for construction work through in depth discussion with community people supported by scientific analysis - Install portable semi-permanent structures in the char - Lobby for greater decentralisation of finances to local government |
Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view | How can they be overcome? |
---|---|
|
7. References and links
7.1 Methods/ sources of information
- interviews with land users
3
- interviews with SLM specialists/ experts
4
- compilation from reports and other existing documentation
2
7.2 References to available publications
Title, author, year, ISBN:
Latrine and Tube well maintenance manual, SRC-BDRCS-DASCOH
Available from where? Costs?
SRC
7.3 Links to relevant information which is available online
Title/ description:
N/A
Links and modules
Expand all Collapse allLinks
No links
Modules
No modules