1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)

Book project: where the land is greener - Case Studies and Analysis of Soil and Water Conservation Initiatives Worldwide (where the land is greener)

Name of the institution(s) which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) - Lebanon

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

When were the data compiled (in the field)?

23/08/1999

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

Yes

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

Ancient level bench terraces with stone walls, built to stabilise slopes, retain moisture, and create a suitable environment for horticulture.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

Stone wall bench terraces in the hill ranges of western Syria comprise an ancient indigenous technology, introduced by the Romans and Byzantines about 2,000 years ago. Some new terraces are, however, still being built. The walls are constructed with limestone, largely found on site. The terraces are located in steep terrain (usually on slopes more than 25%) under low (and erratic) rainfall regimes of between 250 and 500 mm per annum. The terrace walls are 1-2.5 m high and the level beds 3-25 m wide, depending on slope.
Deep soil profiles (more than 2 m) have developed on steep slopes, where original soil depth was only shallow to medium. The terraces are very efficient in preventing soil erosion and in the retention of rainfall. They support trees and annual crops where they could not otherwise be grown.

These terraces are usually found near settlements. Construction is very labour intensive, considering how little land is effectively protected from erosion and brought into cultivation. High labour investment makes the construction process slow and retards further extension of the technology. However, if soundly constructed, maintenance requirements are low. Underlining this point, a large number of very ancient terraces can still be found intact, supporting a productive crop. Sometimes localised collapse of a terrace occurs due to concentrated runoff. In that case, the terrace in question may need to be rebuilt. To prevent such breaches, it is important to allow for discharge of excess runoff along drainage lines.

Currently, most terraces are used to grow fruit trees. These include olives, cherries, almonds, plums, pomegranates, apricots, and peaches. Husbandry practices are normally carried out by hand. Where space permits, however, draft animals are used for tillage. The curves of the terraces and access to the steep slopes make it very difficult/impossible to use tractors. Animal power is more versatile in this irregular landscape, but it is more expensive than tractor power, due to shortage of fodder.

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

2.6 Date of implementation

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:

• more than 50 years ago (traditional)

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:

• as part of a traditional system (> 50 years)

Comments (type of project, etc.):

The technology was most probably developed and introduced during the Roman/Byzantine period, 200-400 AD

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

• improve production
• create beneficial economic impact

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

Comments:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): Before terracing, water erosion resulted in shallow to medium colluvial soils. Terracing made cultivation possible, but the
beds tend to be very narrow and/or irregularly shaped, with large boulders set in them, making tractor cultivation (which is cheap) impossible.

Major land use problems (land users’ perception): (1) Soil tillage - mechanization is difficult; animal power is up to 5 times more expensive than tractor power.
(2) Rockiness of the soil - large and very large stones make cultivation difficult.
(3) Accessibility - inadequate road network to reach fields

3.3 Further information about land use

Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:

• rainfed

Number of growing seasons per year:

• 1

Specify:

Longest growing period in days: 180 Longest growing period from month to month: Nov - Apr

3.4 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

• cross-slope measure

3.5 Spread of the Technology

Specify the spread of the Technology:

• evenly spread over an area

If the Technology is evenly spread over an area, indicate approximate area covered:

• 1-10 km2

Comments:

Total area covered by the SLM Technology is 5 km2.

Recently, new stone wall bench terraces have been constructed in the villages of Mnabe and Bzbour (Ariha District)

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

Comments:

Main type of degradation addressed: Wt: loss of topsoil / surface erosion, Ha: aridification

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:

• prevent land degradation

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

4.2 Technical specifications/ explanations of technical drawing

Stone wall risers constructed in ancient times: these hold back the earth for production of fruit trees on the level benches.

Technical knowledge required for field staff / advisors: high

Technical knowledge required for land users: high

Main technical functions: reduction of slope angle, increase of infiltration, water harvesting / increase water supply, increase in soil fertility (long-term)

Secondary technical functions: increase / maintain water stored in soil, sediment retention / trapping, sediment harvesting, control of concentrated runoff

Terrace: bench level
Vertical interval between structures (m): 1-2
Spacing between structures (m): 2-25

Construction material (stone): natural stones (limestone)

Slope (which determines the spacing indicated above): 20%

For water harvesting: the ratio between the area where the harvested water is applied and the total area from which water is collected is: 1:1

4.3 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

other/ national currency (specify):

Syrian Pounds

Indicate exchange rate from USD to local currency (if relevant): 1 USD =:

50.0

4.4 Establishment activities

	Activity	Type of measure	Timing
1.	Levelling the terrace bed by bulldozers where necessary.	Structural	0.35-0.7 persondays/m for all activities
2.	Blasting rocks in the field	Structural
3.	Collecting stones for wall building – which are available locally.	Structural
4.	Building the stone walls with 1–2.5 m vertical interval (and therefore	Structural
5.	Levelling land between stone walls.	Structural

4.5 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Labour	Labour	ha	1.0	1260.0	1260.0	100.0
Labour	Stone collection	ha	1.0	50.0	50.0	100.0
Equipment	Machine use	ha	1.0	50.0	50.0	100.0
Equipment	Tools	ha	1.0	50.0	50.0	100.0
Equipment	Drill	ha	1.0	5.0	5.0	100.0
Fertilizers and biocides	Ammonium nitrate(kg)	ha	1.0	15.0	15.0	100.0
Construction material	Stone	ha	1.0
Construction material	Detonators	ha	1.0	10.0	10.0	100.0
Construction material	Fuses (m)	ha	1.0	20.0	20.0	100.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology					1460.0

Comments:

Duration of establishment phase: 6 month(s)

4.6 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

	Activity	Type of measure	Timing/ frequency
1.	Repairing (replacing stones)	Structural	5 persondays required/every year

4.7 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Labour	Labour	ha	1.0	15.0	15.0	100.0
Equipment	Tools	ha	1.0	5.0	5.0	100.0
Construction material	Stone	ha	1.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology					20.0

Comments:

Manual construction work requires 0.35-0.7 person days per metre length of terrace wall. Establishment costs were calculated for an average of 600 m length of stone wall (height 2 m, width 70 cm) per hectare on a 12% slope, with
terrace beds therefore about 16-17 metres wide. Narrower terraces on steeper slopes are considerably more expensive to construct.

4.8 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

Labour shortage and labour cost

5.1 Climate

5.2 Topography

Comments and further specifications on topography:

Slopes on average: Also rolling (ranked 3)

5.3 Soils

If available, attach full soil description or specify the available information, e.g. soil type, soil PH/ acidity, Cation Exchange Capacity, nitrogen, salinity etc.

Soil fertility: Medium (ranked 1) and low (ranked 2)
Soil drainage/infiltration: Medium
Soil water storage capacity: Medium

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

Indicate other relevant characteristics of the land users:

Population density: > 500 persons/km2

Annual population growth: 3% - 4%

Relative level of wealth: very rich, rich, average, poor

3% of the land users are very rich and own 20% of the land (very few).
7% of the land users are rich and own 20% of the land (few,).
40% of the land users are average wealthy and own 30% of the land (Many).
50% of the land users are poor and own 30% of the land (Many).

Off-farm income specification: On average, 70 % of the income is from off-farm activities

5.7 Average area of land owned or leased by land users applying the Technology

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:

• individual, titled

Land use rights:

• individual

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

Income and costs

Socio-cultural impacts

Ecological impacts

Water cycle/ runoff

Soil

Biodiversity: vegetation, animals

Climate and disaster risk reduction

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

If available, quantify (no. of households and/ or area covered):

39

Comments:

5% of land user families have adopted the Technology with external material support

2 land user families have adopted the Technology with external material support

95% of land user families have adopted the Technology without any external material support

37 land user families have adopted the Technology without any external material support

There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology

Comments on adoption trend: The rate of spontaneous adoption is low because of the high costs.

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Soil and water is conserved and fruit crop yields are maintained/increased How can they be sustained / enhanced? Combine with soil fertility improvement (such as farm yard manure). The prices of the crops grown should remain adequate
The maintenance requirements are low. The terraces need little repair How can they be sustained / enhanced? Natural drainage lines must be prepared/maintained to prevent collapse during heavy rainfall.
The terraces make the cultivation of trees on hill slopes possible.

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view	How can they be overcome?
The establishment costs are high	Plant high value cash crops.
The mechanisation of farm operations is impossible because there is no access to the terraces for tractors, while animal power is constrained by high maintenance costs (fodder). Thus, field operations are limited to hand labour	Subsidise mule ploughing.

7.2 References to available publications

Title, author, year, ISBN:

Mushallah AB. The visible and the hidden in the country of olives. pp 463. 2000.

Available from where? Costs?

Akrama Publ. Office. Damascus, Syria.