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Technologies
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Spekboom (Portulacaria afra) planting within riplines for thicket biome restoration [South Africa]

Spekboom planting on contours

technologies_3614 - South Africa

Completeness: 88%

1. General information

1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Key resource person(s)

SLM specialist:
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{'additional_translations': {}, 'value': 38, 'label': 'Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)', 'text': 'Working on Ecosystems (Natural Resource Management Programmes – DEA, South Africa)', 'template': 'raw'} {'additional_translations': {}, 'value': 902, 'label': 'Name of the institution(s) which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)', 'text': 'SMC Synergy (SMC Synergy) - South Africa', 'template': 'raw'}

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

Yes

1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology

Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?

No

1.5 Reference to Questionnaire(s) on SLM Approaches (documented using WOCAT)

Working for Water
approaches

Working for Water [South Africa]

Government funded restoration/rehabilitation initiative as part of Working for Water project. Aim was to eradicate alien invasive.

  • Compiler: Klaus Kellner

2. Description of the SLM Technology

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

The restoration of the thicket biome in the Eastern Cape is assisted by planting ‘spekboom’ (elephant bush) (Portulacaria afra), an indigenous succulent plant within contour lines/riplines on degraded hillslopes. The increased vegetation cover reduces runoff and soil loss.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

Due to severe land degradation over many decades of goat farming, the restoration of the so-called ‘thicket biome’ is taking place on a large scale in the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve and Camdeboo National Park in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. The restoration projects have been introduced in parts of the thicket biome that receive 350 to 500 mm annual average rainfall. The main direct cause of degradation is overgrazing/browsing by goats (Boer and Angora) over the past 100 years. The overutilization of vegetation occurs mainly on valley bottoms and footslopes in mountainous areas where relatively fertile soils occur. This has resulted in large expanses of open vegetation canopy under which a high degree of runoff occurs - and subsequent soil loss leading to increased sediment loads in downstream drainage systems. The thicket biome vegetation (especially spekboom) is well known for its ability to sequester large amounts of carbon and therefore help towards mitigating climate change. The improved vegetation cover also contributes towards an increase in biodiversity, and therefore has a positive impact on tourism also. Establishment of spekboom in riplines can be used in combination with other technologies e.g. brush packing (laying cut bush on the soil surface), silt fences (low barriers across the slope) or fibre rolls. This technology can be employed in any similar semi-arid environment to restore degraded catchments - using locally appropriate plant species.
After identification of sites to be rehabilitated, this is followed by the identification of suitable sources of plant material for transplantation at the rehabilitation areas. In the case of the project in the Eastern Cape, spekboom cuttings of 30 to 50 cm in length were taken from existing stands, then left for one to two weeks in the sun to dry slightly before being transplanted in the rehabilitation sites. Care must be taken not to over-harvest healthy spekboom stands - not more than 30% should be removed.
Riplines need to be created along the contour by means of mechanisation or manual labour. Riplines should be between 3 and 10 meter apart - depending on the slope (closer on steep slopes) - 10 to 20 cm deep and just wide enough to plant the spekboom cuttings to a depth of at least 10 cm. Cuttings are planted between 15 to 20 cm apart within the ripline, so as to form a continuous barrier/sediment trap along the contour. The ripline promotes water infiltration into the rootzone of the cuttings. Cuttings need to be firmed-in with soil dug from the ripline. Watering the spekboom after planting is recommended – if possible. Brush packing (brush packing with thorny biomass to prevent grazing and provide a micro-climate for grass seed to germinate and establish) between riplines with local woody material (if available locally, and preferably thorny branches) is recommended to provide protection against grazing and to create a micro-climate for vegetation growth. In between riplines, silt fences or fibre rolls can be used to slow water runoff and to trap sediment. Maintenance includes the replanting of cuttings where mortality occurred.

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

Country:

South Africa

Region/ State/ Province:

Eastern Cape

Specify the spread of the Technology:
  • applied at specific points/ concentrated on a small area
Comments:

Only implemented on degraded Thicket Biome areas on low to moderate slopes.

2.6 Date of implementation

Indicate year of implementation:

2010

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:
  • less than 10 years ago (recently)

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:
  • during experiments/ research
Comments (type of project, etc.):

Research conducted by P Burdett at Camdeboo National Park.

3. Classification of the SLM Technology

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

  • reduce, prevent, restore land degradation
  • conserve ecosystem
  • protect a watershed/ downstream areas – in combination with other Technologies
  • preserve/ improve biodiversity
  • adapt to climate change/ extremes and its impacts
  • mitigate climate change and its impacts
  • create beneficial economic impact

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

Grazing land

Grazing land

  • Wildlife in nature reserves
  • Various game species
Comments:

Main animal species and products: Various game species.

Number of growing seasons per year: 1
Livestock density: Only wildlife - low density

3.4 Water supply

Water supply for the land on which the Technology is applied:
  • rainfed

3.5 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

  • improved ground/ vegetation cover
  • water harvesting
  • surface water management (spring, river, lakes, sea)

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

vegetative measures

vegetative measures

  • V1: Tree and shrub cover
structural measures

structural measures

  • S6: Walls, barriers, palisades, fences

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

soil erosion by water

soil erosion by water

  • Wt: loss of topsoil/ surface erosion
  • Wg: gully erosion/ gullying
  • Wo: offsite degradation effects
physical soil deterioration

physical soil deterioration

  • Pc: compaction
  • Pk: slaking and crusting
  • Pi: soil sealing
biological degradation

biological degradation

  • Bc: reduction of vegetation cover
  • Bh: loss of habitats
  • Bq: quantity/ biomass decline
water degradation

water degradation

  • Hs: change in quantity of surface water
  • Hg: change in groundwater/aquifer level
  • Hp: decline of surface water quality

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:
  • restore/ rehabilitate severely degraded land
Comments:

Overgrazing by goats over the past 100 years – land has been purchased from private landowners since 1987.

4. Technical specifications, implementation activities, inputs, and costs

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

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Technical specifications (related to technical drawing):

Spekboom cuttings (30 - 50 cm in length and 1 to 3 cm diameter) are cut from existing stands. The riplines are created by labourer (soil on downhill side of line) on contours with the spacing between lines a function of the slope (3 metres apart on 10 - 15 degree slopes and 6 to 10 metres apart on 5 to 10 degree slopes). The cuttings are planted 15 to 20 cm apart in the riplines at a depth of around 10 cm.
Riplines 10cm deep – as long as the bare patches that need rehabilitation – labourers also use picks.

Author:

J Buckle

Date:

21/02/2018

4.2 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

Specify how costs and inputs were calculated:
  • per Technology area
Indicate size and area unit:

1 ha

other/ national currency (specify):

Rand

If relevant, indicate exchange rate from USD to local currency (e.g. 1 USD = 79.9 Brazilian Real): 1 USD =:

12.0

Indicate average wage cost of hired labour per day:

140

4.3 Establishment activities

Activity Timing (season)
1. Creation of riplines (unskilled manual labour) during wet season
2. Collection of Spekboom cuttings during wet season
3. Transport of cuttings to planting site during wet season
4. Planting of cuttings in riplines during wet season
5. Watering of cuttings during wet season

4.4 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Unskilled labour (including transport) per day 20.0 240.0 4800.0 100.0
Equipment Picks, spades, wheel barrow, bow saw and pruning shears (renting equipment) per day 20.0 20.0 400.0 100.0
Plant material Planting material is free
Plant material Planting material is free
Other Management (including transport) per day 2.0 600.0 1200.0 100.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology 6400.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology in USD 533.33

4.5 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

Activity Timing/ frequency
1. Replant cuttings where mortality occurs 6 to 8 months after planting

4.6 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

Specify input Unit Quantity Costs per Unit Total costs per input % of costs borne by land users
Labour Replanting of cuttings (unskilled labour - including transport) per day 10.0 240.0 2400.0 100.0
Other Management (including transport) per day 1.0 600.0 600.0 100.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology 3000.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology in USD 250.0

4.7 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

Soil hardness, labour cost and distance to rehabilitation site.

5. Natural and human environment

5.1 Climate

Annual rainfall
  • < 250 mm
  • 251-500 mm
  • 501-750 mm
  • 751-1,000 mm
  • 1,001-1,500 mm
  • 1,501-2,000 mm
  • 2,001-3,000 mm
  • 3,001-4,000 mm
  • > 4,000 mm
Specify average annual rainfall (if known), in mm:

350.00

Specifications/ comments on rainfall:

Summer thunderstorms

Agro-climatic zone
  • semi-arid

Harsh hot summers and very cold winters

5.2 Topography

Slopes on average:
  • flat (0-2%)
  • gentle (3-5%)
  • moderate (6-10%)
  • rolling (11-15%)
  • hilly (16-30%)
  • steep (31-60%)
  • very steep (>60%)
Landforms:
  • plateau/plains
  • ridges
  • mountain slopes
  • hill slopes
  • footslopes
  • valley floors
Altitudinal zone:
  • 0-100 m a.s.l.
  • 101-500 m a.s.l.
  • 501-1,000 m a.s.l.
  • 1,001-1,500 m a.s.l.
  • 1,501-2,000 m a.s.l.
  • 2,001-2,500 m a.s.l.
  • 2,501-3,000 m a.s.l.
  • 3,001-4,000 m a.s.l.
  • > 4,000 m a.s.l.
Indicate if the Technology is specifically applied in:
  • convex situations

5.3 Soils

Soil depth on average:
  • very shallow (0-20 cm)
  • shallow (21-50 cm)
  • moderately deep (51-80 cm)
  • deep (81-120 cm)
  • very deep (> 120 cm)
Soil texture (topsoil):
  • medium (loamy, silty)
  • fine/ heavy (clay)
Soil texture (> 20 cm below surface):
  • medium (loamy, silty)
Topsoil organic matter:
  • low (<1%)

5.4 Water availability and quality

Ground water table:

> 50 m

Availability of surface water:

poor/ none

Water quality (untreated):

for agricultural use only (irrigation)

Is water salinity a problem?

Yes

Specify:

High sodium content in the parent sedimentary rock

Is flooding of the area occurring?

Yes

5.5 Biodiversity

Species diversity:
  • medium
Habitat diversity:
  • medium

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

other (specify):

Government conservation areas

Market orientation of production system:
  • commercial/ market
Off-farm income:
  • > 50% of all income
Relative level of wealth:
  • average
Individuals or groups:
  • employee (company, government)
Level of mechanization:
  • manual work
Gender:
  • women
  • men
Age of land users:
  • youth
  • middle-aged
Indicate other relevant characteristics of the land users:

Rehabilitation mainly on State-owned conservation areas - can be replicated on private land.

5.7 Average area of land used by land users applying the Technology

  • < 0.5 ha
  • 0.5-1 ha
  • 1-2 ha
  • 2-5 ha
  • 5-15 ha
  • 15-50 ha
  • 50-100 ha
  • 100-500 ha
  • 500-1,000 ha
  • 1,000-10,000 ha
  • > 10,000 ha
Is this considered small-, medium- or large-scale (referring to local context)?
  • large-scale

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:
  • state
Land use rights:
  • communal (organized)
  • Conservation areas
  • Conservation areas

5.9 Access to services and infrastructure

health:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
education:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
technical assistance:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
employment (e.g. off-farm):
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
markets:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
energy:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
roads and transport:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
drinking water and sanitation:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good
financial services:
  • poor
  • moderate
  • good

6. Impacts and concluding statements

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

fodder production

decreased
increased

fodder quality

decreased
increased

Socio-cultural impacts

recreational opportunities

reduced
improved

SLM/ land degradation knowledge

reduced
improved

Ecological impacts

Water cycle/ runoff

water quantity

decreased
increased

water quality

decreased
increased

harvesting/ collection of water

reduced
improved

surface runoff

increased
decreased
Soil

soil moisture

decreased
increased

soil cover

reduced
improved

soil loss

increased
decreased

soil organic matter/ below ground C

decreased
increased
Biodiversity: vegetation, animals

Vegetation cover

decreased
increased

habitat diversity

decreased
increased
Climate and disaster risk reduction

flood impacts

increased
decreased

emission of carbon and greenhouse gases

increased
decreased

micro-climate

worsened
improved

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

downstream flooding

increased
reduced

downstream siltation

increased
decreased

impact of greenhouse gases

increased
reduced
Specify assessment of off-site impacts (measurements):

The cumulative effect of large areas planted with Spekboom will have a huge offsite impact especially after a few years.

6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change
Season increase or decrease How does the Technology cope with it?
annual temperature increase well
annual rainfall decrease moderately

Climate-related extremes (disasters)

Meteorological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
local thunderstorm very well
local hailstorm not well
Climatological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
cold wave not well
Hydrological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
flash flood moderately
Biological disasters
How does the Technology cope with it?
epidemic diseases not well

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?
Short-term returns:

slightly negative

Long-term returns:

positive

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?
Short-term returns:

slightly negative

Long-term returns:

positive

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

  • 1-10%
Of all those who have adopted the Technology, how many did so spontaneously, i.e. without receiving any material incentives/ payments?
  • 0-10%

6.6 Adaptation

Has the Technology been modified recently to adapt to changing conditions?

Yes

other (specify):

Improved planting techniques

Specify adaptation of the Technology (design, material/ species, etc.):

Planting of cuttings with established roots from the mother plant and creation of small notches a the cutting to stimulate root growth.

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the land user’s view
A long-term cost-effective technique to rehabilitate badly degraded thicket vegetation.
Creates temporary work for poor local communities.
Reduces sediment load in streams and rivers.
Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Spekboom sequesters large quantities of carbon and therefore contributes over the long term to climate change mitigation.
Downstream benefits on water quality.

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the land user’s view How can they be overcome?
Labour intensive - not viable if not subsidised by Government. Reduce manual labour - mechanise the creation of riplines.
Newly established spekboom stands vulnerable to browsing. Fence rehabilitated areas.
Newly established spekboom stands vulnerable to drought and frost. Timing of planting in wet/warm season

7. References and links

7.1 Methods/ sources of information

  • interviews with SLM specialists/ experts

1

When were the data compiled (in the field)?

21/02/2018

7.3 Links to relevant online information

Title/ description:

Spekboom foundation

URL:

http://www.spekboomfoundation.co.za/about.html

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