1.2 Contact details of resource persons and institutions involved in the assessment and documentation of the Technology

Name of project which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)

Catastrophic shifts in drylands (EU-CASCADE)

Name of the institution(s) which facilitated the documentation/ evaluation of the Technology (if relevant)

Centro de Estudios Ambientales del Mediterraneo (CEAM) - Spain

1.3 Conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT

The compiler and key resource person(s) accept the conditions regarding the use of data documented through WOCAT:

Yes

1.4 Declaration on sustainability of the described Technology

Is the Technology described here problematic with regard to land degradation, so that it cannot be declared a sustainable land management technology?

No

2.1 Short description of the Technology

Definition of the Technology:

Selective forest clearing aims in reducing the connectivity and the amount of (dead standing) fuel, as well as reducing the competition between regenerating pines, in order to prevent forest fires and to ensure the growth of a healthy forest.

2.2 Detailed description of the Technology

Description:

The forests in the Ayora region experienced a huge disturbance in the past, such as deforestations, removal of key species, land abandonment, dense growth of fire-prone seeder species (high continuity of dead standing fuel), missing management, wildfires and dense afforestations. These disturbances resulted in the degradation of the vegetation, the reduction of the resilience of the ecosystem against fires and thus an increasing risk of wildfires. After fires, many landscapes regenerated with a high and continuous fuel accumulation with few native resprouter species, which made it extremely difficult to control forest fires. The dense growth not only increased the risk of wildfires but also the competition between different species (nutrients, light, space). Therefore appropriate vegetation management to increase the resilience of the ecosystem to fires and to reduce competition is crucial.

These problems are approached by selective forest clearing. The main purposes of thinning dense pine forests are the prevention of fires by reducing the fuel load and its continuity, and to improve pine regeneration by eliminating the competition between different species. As a result, the quality of the plants is improved and the amount of dead or sick plants is reduced, which is essential to ensure a healthy forest. This also leads to a higher resistance to pests which in turn again decreases the risk of fire (less dead plants). Vegetation removal produces fresh vegetation growth, therefore more diverse and nutritious fodder is provided to animals (game and livestock) in the cleared areas which is a benefit for herders. Also wild animals use this fodder supply which in turn hinders them to destroy cultivated fields of the farmers. Furthermore, honey producers make use of the enhanced growth of shrubs and the additional space created by selective clearing to place their beehives and to increase honey production.
Especially during the current economic crisis forest management is an important source for jobs - most of the workers were unemployed before working in the selective clearing. Through the clearings, fuelwood is gained and offered to retired people for free for cooking and heating, allowing them to save money. Additionally, almost all villagers like to have a cleared forest due to its high aesthetic and recreational value.

In order to be selective and to preserve desired species, the clearing is done with small machines such as brushcutters and chainsaws. On average the forest is thinned until reaching a density of 800-1200 trees/ha. Species such as Juniperus, Rhamnus al., Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus faginea or Fraxinus ornus are not removed which increases the probability to have a more fire-resistant vegetation composition in future. Dead or sick plants and also a part of fire-prone shrubs such as Ulex parv. and Cistus alb. are removed. If there are both Pinus pinaster and Pinus halepensis. Pinus halepensis is cleared because they compete with each other. The roots are not removed which ensures the stability and productivity of the soil. The remaining species are pruned (“poda”) until a maximum height of 2.5m to improve the conditions of the species. Around each tree they should clear an area of 2m.
After felling trees and shrubs a part of the residues is chipped in-situ and covers the soil as mulch, which results in ecological benefits (e.g. increase in soil moisture, prevention from erosion, enhancement of nutrient cycling, reduction of the soil surface temperature).
If the slope is steep, it takes more time to do the clearing and it might also increase the risk of erosion afterwards. Under the best conditions (e.g. good access and terrain), 0.8ha per day are cleared (calculated for a group of 9 persons working 7 hours). In this case the costs are paid by the municipal council, which receives a part of the money from the rental fee paid by the wind mill company. The cleared areas have to be maintained depending on the speed of the vegetation growth (which amongst others depends on the soil, slope and humidity). If the clearings are done regularly, it takes less time and it is cheaper than the first clearing. It should be noted that recurrent maintenance is crucial to ensure the effectiveness of the technology.

The region of Ayora is mountainous with a dry subhumid climate (~380 mm annual rainfall). The risk of fire incidence is at its highest from June to September when there are adverse conditions like drought, high temperatures and strong winds (mainly the winds coming from central Spain, called “poniente”). The population density is very low and there are only few job opportunities (e.g. marginal agriculture, grazing, hunting, beekeeping). Most of the inhabitants work in the nuclear power plant. Forest management could be a source for jobs.

2.3 Photos of the Technology

2.5 Country/ region/ locations where the Technology has been applied and which are covered by this assessment

2.6 Date of implementation

If precise year is not known, indicate approximate date:

• less than 10 years ago (recently)

2.7 Introduction of the Technology

Specify how the Technology was introduced:

• through projects/ external interventions

Comments (type of project, etc.):

The clearings documented here were done in the years 2012 and 2013, mandated by the state and executed by the municipal council of Jarafuel. But already in 1990 clearings (with machines) were applied. At that time they were called “ayuda regeneración” which means regeneration help.

3.1 Main purpose(s) of the Technology

• reduce risk of disasters

3.2 Current land use type(s) where the Technology is applied

Comments:

Major land use problems (compiler’s opinion): The prevalent dense shrublands (dominated by seeder species), which resulted from past agricultural land use (changes of the vegetation composition, e.g. removal of key species), land abandonment/rural depopulation and fire occurrence, contain a high fire risk because of both the high fuel loads and their continuity. Also dense forests (either afforestations or natural regeneration) show a high risk for fires. Through the modifications of the vegetation composition in the past (removal of more fire resistant resprouter species, whereas fire-prone seeder species are abundant), the resilience of the ecosystem to fires has decreased. Today a higher fire recurrence can be observed which could still be worsen by future climate change impacts, undermining more and more the ecosystem’s capacity to buffer such shocks. Furthermore, the high density of the forest results in a competition between different species which increases the amount of dead or thin material.
Selective felling of (semi-) natural forests: As a management practice. The forest should be cleared more frequently since there is a huge amount of fuel.
Plantation forestry: Almost the whole forest in this region was planted.

Trees/ shrubs species: Trees and shrubs are cleared (e.g. Ulex parviflorus, Cistus albidus, some pines)
Other species: Not removed species: e.g. Juniperus, Rhamnus alaternus, Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus faginea

3.3 Has land use changed due to the implementation of the Technology?

Has land use changed due to the implementation of the Technology?

• Yes (Please fill out the questions below with regard to the land use before implementation of the Technology)

Land use mixed within the same land unit:

No

3.5 SLM group to which the Technology belongs

• ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction

3.6 SLM measures comprising the Technology

3.7 Main types of land degradation addressed by the Technology

Comments:

Main causes of degradation: deforestation / removal of natural vegetation (incl. forest fires) (Deforestation in the past (removal of resprouter species), land abandonment, uncontrolled growth of fire prone vegetation, afforestations, forest fires), population pressure (Vast areas were deforested in the past for agriculture, important key species were removed. After land abandonment there was a lack of management strategies.), poverty / wealth (The current economic crisis in Spain leads to a lack of investment in forest management, therefore only a minor part of forests is managed by selective clearing.), labour availability (In the past there was outmigration from the region to the big cities and therefore there was a lack of management.)
Secondary causes of degradation: change of seasonal rainfall (More variability in precipitation leads to a higher risk of fires.), droughts (more fires during droughts), land tenure (The state is only allowed to apply management practices in public forest. The private forest is often not managed which increases the risk of fires and the resulting degradation.), inputs and infrastructure: (roads, markets, distribution of water points, other, …) (There were big fires in the past because of the lack of fire extinction media like water ponds, streets, transport media (this has been improved now).), education, access to knowledge and support services (Loss of knowledge, important for today’s fires: People (especially from the cities) are not aware anymore of the risk of fire. In the past people lived with the risk and knew how to prevent fires.), governance / institutional (Law to induce implementation of conservation interventions (ley forestal 3/1993) and “plan de selvicultura preventiva de incendios en los sistemas forestales de Valencia (1996)”. Before less practices)

3.8 Prevention, reduction, or restoration of land degradation

Specify the goal of the Technology with regard to land degradation:

• prevent land degradation
• reduce land degradation

4.1 Technical drawing of the Technology

4.2 General information regarding the calculation of inputs and costs

other/ national currency (specify):

Euro

If relevant, indicate exchange rate from USD to local currency (e.g. 1 USD = 79.9 Brazilian Real): 1 USD =:

0.74

4.3 Establishment activities

	Activity	Timing (season)
1.	Cutting and chipping (in-situ) of trees and shrubs (selective clearing)	autumn/winter, in this case late spring (end of may)
2.	Transport of wood (fuel wood)	after clearing

4.4 Costs and inputs needed for establishment

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Labour	labour	ha	1.0	404.0	404.0
Equipment	machine use	ha	1.0	2024.0	2024.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology					2428.0
Total costs for establishment of the Technology in USD					3281.08

4.5 Maintenance/ recurrent activities

	Activity	Timing/ frequency
1.	Cutting and chipping (in-situ) of trees and shrubs (selective clearing)	autumn/winter, in this case late spring (end of may)
2.	Transport of wood (fuelwood)	after clearing

4.6 Costs and inputs needed for maintenance/ recurrent activities (per year)

	Specify input	Unit	Quantity	Costs per Unit	Total costs per input	% of costs borne by land users
Equipment	machine use	ha	1.0	446.0	446.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology					446.0
Total costs for maintenance of the Technology in USD					602.7

Comments:

Machinery/ tools: brushcutters, chainsaws, tractors
The costs were calculated for the application of the technology (selective clearing) on one hectare. In this case, 9 people are working as a team. If the site is accessible and if the terrain is good for clearing work they can clear 0.8 ha per day. It should be noted that clearing with small machines such as brushcutters and chainsaws is much more expensive than clearing with tractors, but often it is only possible to clear with small machines (e.g. removal of trees is not possible with tractors). A tractor costs more or less 500 Euro per ha (674 Dollar per ha). A clearing of a pine forest with manual machines costs around 1800 Euro per ha (2428 Dollar per ha). The costs of the maintenance activities (e.g. second clearing) are much lower because the area was cleared already some years before. Therefore more ha per day can be cleared.
In Jarafuel, a part of the costs are covered by the rental fee paid by the windmill company.
The currency rate (Euro-Dollar) was calculated on November 16th, 2013.

4.7 Most important factors affecting the costs

Describe the most determinate factors affecting the costs:

The costs of selective forest clearing can be affected by numerous factors, such as slope (if the slope is steep, the work is much more difficult and takes more time), vegetation density (it takes more time to clear a dense area) and vegetation type (pine forest or shrubland), distance from a street (people can work less in a day if they have to walk far to clear). Important to note is that maintenance costs could increase with an increase in rainfall because the vegetation will grow faster.

5.1 Climate

5.2 Topography

5.3 Soils

5.4 Water availability and quality

5.5 Biodiversity

5.6 Characteristics of land users applying the Technology

Indicate other relevant characteristics of the land users:

Land users applying the Technology are mainly common / average land users
Difference in the involvement of women and men: Yes, the work is mainly done by men, because it is heavy work and it is not usual that women are working in the forest.
Population density: < 10 persons/km2
Annual population growth: negative
Off-farm income specification: The forest brigade is only working when there is money and a project. If there is no money they have no work and need to look for another job.

5.8 Land ownership, land use rights, and water use rights

Land ownership:

• state
• individual, titled

Land use rights:

• individual

• public/open access but organised (e.g. wood, hunting)

• public/open access but organised (e.g. wood, hunting)

Comments:

There is some public land, controlled by the state. But there is also some private land. The access to the public land is open but organized. Permission is needed from the government to cut trees, to build a house or to hunt. There are some private hunting areas for which the hunting association has to pay a fee.

6.1 On-site impacts the Technology has shown

Socio-economic impacts

Production

Income and costs

Other socio-economic impacts

Socio-cultural impacts

Ecological impacts

Water cycle/ runoff

Soil

Biodiversity: vegetation, animals

Climate and disaster risk reduction

6.2 Off-site impacts the Technology has shown

6.3 Exposure and sensitivity of the Technology to gradual climate change and climate-related extremes/ disasters (as perceived by land users)

Gradual climate change

Gradual climate change

	Season	increase or decrease	How does the Technology cope with it?
annual temperature		increase	well

Climate-related extremes (disasters)

Meteorological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
local rainstorm	well
local windstorm	well

Climatological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
drought	well

Hydrological disasters

	How does the Technology cope with it?
general (river) flood	well

Other climate-related consequences

Other climate-related consequences

	How does the Technology cope with it?
reduced growing period	not known

Comments:

The technology was not modified but it is important to add some notes to the above stated reactions to climatic extremes. The cleared areas are quite resistant against climate change or weather extremes. Only if there will be more rainfall the vegetation might grow faster and the maintenance costs could increase.

6.4 Cost-benefit analysis

How do the benefits compare with the establishment costs (from land users’ perspective)?

How do the benefits compare with the maintenance/ recurrent costs (from land users' perspective)?

Comments:

Both the short-term and the long-term benefits are very positive assuming that maintenance is done. It contributes to prevent devastating fires and to guarantee a healthy forest. Together with the creation of jobs, directly after clearing there is firewood and timber available and a reduced risk of wildfires. But it should also be considered that the establishment costs are high. If maintenance is not done the long-term returns will be very negative because an increase in the risk of fire will occur again (without management, there will also be no firewood, no timber and no jobs). The maintenance costs increase the longer you wait because the vegetation will grow again densely.

6.5 Adoption of the Technology

Comments:

Comments on acceptance with external material support: The clearing is financed by the state (indirectly the clearings are partly paid by the local wind mill company through their rental fee).
There is no trend towards spontaneous adoption of the Technology
Clearings are only done when the state has money. Selective clearing is also applied in other countries/regions, e.g. in California.

6.7 Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities of the Technology

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the land user’s view
There are both social and economic benefits for local people. The selective clearings provide jobs for rural people, which allows them to increase their livelihood conditions. People do not depend on unemployment pays and are therefore more accepted in society. A part of the extracted wood is used for biomass, fertilizers, pellets, or firewood. Furthermore there would be improved conditions for grazing. Therefore forest management contributes to rural development.
There are also off-site benefits. Fewer fires will result in a reduction of downstream flooding, downstream siltation and damage on neighbours’ fields. When fire removes less vegetation the soil is less vulnerable to erosion.
In Jarafuel where most of the land is public retired people receive the firewood gained by forest clearings for free. They can use the wood for cooking and heating and save a lot of money.
Almost all villagers like to see a cleared forest. It has a high aesthetic and recreational value (it is possible to walk through the forest). They are also aware that the risk of wildfires is reduced through this technology.
Shepherds, hunters and farmers benefit from forest clearings. Vegetation removal produces fresh vegetation growth, therefore more diverse and nutritious fodder is available for animals (game and livestock) in the cleared areas. Game/wildlife and livestock are better because there is an increase in fodder quantity and quality. Wild animals benefit from this food source which in turn hinders them to destroy cultivated fields of the farmers. Also honey producers benefit from the cleared areas since bees can fly better and there is more place to put the beehives, furthermore the growth of shrubs is enhanced.

Strengths/ advantages/ opportunities in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view
Through selective forest clearing the fuel amount and connectivity (vertical/horizontal) is reduced which is crucial for preventing the occurrence and spread of large forest fires.
There is a reduction of competition between plants which is essential to ensure a healthy forest (more nutrients, light, space). This also leads to a higher resistance against pests which in turn again decreases the fire risk (less dead or sick plants).
Fuel management through vegetation clearing presents some positive aspects with respect to other techniques, e.g. the possibility of being selective in order to preserve desired species or individuals. Furthermore, after felling trees and shrubs a part of the vegetation is chipped in-situ and covers the soil as mulch. This results in ecological benefits (e.g. increase in soil moisture, prevention from erosion, enhancement of nutrient cycling, reduction of the soil surface temperature and evaporation loss).
The trees/shrubs are cut but the roots are not removed. This ensures the stability and productivity of the soil.
Fewer fires result in a decrease of the destroyed area, less money will have to be invested in restoration or fire extinction. Furthermore, farmers, hunters and honey producers will experience fewer losses.

6.8 Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks of the Technology and ways of overcoming them

Weaknesses/ disadvantages/ risks in the compiler’s or other key resource person’s view	How can they be overcome?
The establishment and the maintenance activities are expensive and labour-intensive. Without management the technology is not effective anymore. It would be necessary to extract biomass from the forest to decrease the continuity of the trees and shrubs. In case of a lack of management the risk of fires increases.	Management is crucial. Prevention measures are often less expensive than rehabilitation activities after a fire. The state should therefore invest more money in forest management and fire prevention. Managing the forest would not only decrease the risk of fire but also generate benefits (e.g. wood, biomass, fuelwood). Instead of getting unemployment pay people could get jobs in forest management. Stakeholders mentioned that it would be important to promote the forest as a sustainable economic resource and that the relation between the villagers and the forest should be enhanced. Furthermore it was mentioned that traditional activities (such as grazing, agriculture, wood gathering) should be reactivated and that the villagers should get economic compensation to maintain the forest in a good state. Especially the promotion of grazing was stressed many times. Also planting of more fire-resistant species (late successional stages) in some spots as suggested by CEAM could increase the resilience of the ecosystem and decrease management costs.
The clearing of forests has potential to prevent fires and therefore degradation. But there are also a lot of highly connected shrublands with a high fuel load which are not addressed by this management practice.	Shrublands need to be cleared as well since they constitute a huge risk for wildfires.
If there is more space after clearing the first shrubs which will grow will be fire-prone early successional species, such as Cistus albidus and Ulex parviflorus. Without management, they will increase the risk of fires.	Recurrent maintenance is crucial to ensure the effectiveness of the technology. Management through grazing could be a simple way to reduce the costs and the risk. By planting resprouter species really densely seeders would not grow anymore in those spots which would also decrease the fire risk and the management costs.
When the clearing is done on extremely steep slopes there might be an increase in erosion.	Before clearing the soil erosion risk should be calculated.
In some areas there will be less shade which could harm some species.

7.1 Methods/ sources of information